Gold
Gold | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Appearance | Metallic yellow | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Au) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Gold in the periodic table | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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kJ/mol | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Heat of vaporization | 342 kJ/mol | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Molar heat capacity | 25.418 J/(mol·K) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Vapor pressure
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Atomic properties | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
6000 BCE) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Symbol | "Au": from Latin aurum | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Isotopes of gold | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Gold is a
Gold often occurs in
Gold is resistant to most acids, though it does dissolve in
A relatively rare element,
In 2020, the
Characteristics
Gold is the most
Gold has a density of 19.3 g/cm3, almost identical to that of
Color
Whereas most metals are gray or silvery white, gold is slightly reddish-yellow.[23] This color is determined by the frequency of plasma oscillations among the metal's valence electrons, in the ultraviolet range for most metals but in the visible range for gold due to relativistic effects affecting the orbitals around gold atoms.[24][25] Similar effects impart a golden hue to metallic caesium.
Common colored gold alloys include the distinctive eighteen-karat
Colloidal gold, used by electron-microscopists, is red if the particles are small; larger particles of colloidal gold are blue.[27]
Isotopes
Gold has only one stable
At least 32
Synthesis
The possible production of gold from a more common element, such as
Chemistry
Although gold is the most noble of the noble metals,
Au(III) (referred to as auric) is a common oxidation state, and is illustrated by
Gold does not react with oxygen at any temperature[38] and, up to 100 °C, is resistant to attack from ozone:[39]
Some free
Gold does not react with sulfur directly,
Unlike sulfur, phosphorus reacts directly with gold at elevated temperatures to produce gold phosphide (Au2P3).[44]
Gold readily dissolves in mercury at room temperature to form an amalgam, and forms alloys with many other metals at higher temperatures. These alloys can be produced to modify the hardness and other metallurgical properties, to control melting point or to create exotic colors.[26]
Gold is unaffected by most acids. It does not react with
Gold is similarly unaffected by most bases. It does not react with
Common
Rare oxidation states
Less common oxidation states of gold include −1, +2, and +5.
The −1 oxidation state occurs in aurides, compounds containing the Au−
Gold also has a –1 oxidation state in covalent complexes with the
Gold(II) compounds are usually
Some gold compounds exhibit aurophilic bonding, which describes the tendency of gold ions to interact at distances that are too long to be a conventional Au–Au bond but shorter than van der Waals bonding. The interaction is estimated to be comparable in strength to that of a hydrogen bond.
Well-defined cluster compounds are numerous.[46] In some cases, gold has a fractional oxidation state. A representative example is the octahedral species {Au(P(C6H5)3)}2+6.
Origin
Gold production in the universe
Gold is thought to have been produced in
Traditionally, gold in the universe is thought to have formed by the r-process (rapid neutron capture) in supernova nucleosynthesis,[56] but more recently it has been suggested that gold and other elements heavier than iron may also be produced in quantity by the r-process in the collision of neutron stars.[57] In both cases, satellite spectrometers at first only indirectly detected the resulting gold.[58] However, in August 2017, the spectroscopic signatures of heavy elements, including gold, were observed by electromagnetic observatories in the GW170817 neutron star merger event, after gravitational wave detectors confirmed the event as a neutron star merger.[59] Current astrophysical models suggest that this single neutron star merger event generated between 3 and 13 Earth masses of gold. This amount, along with estimations of the rate of occurrence of these neutron star merger events, suggests that such mergers may produce enough gold to account for most of the abundance of this element in the universe.[60]
Asteroid origin theories
Because the Earth was molten
Gold which is reachable by humans has, in one case, been associated with a particular asteroid impact. The asteroid that formed
Mantle return theories
Much of the rest of the gold on Earth is thought to have been incorporated into the planet since its very beginning, as
Occurrence
On Earth, gold is found in
Native gold occurs as very small to microscopic particles embedded in rock, often together with
Gold sometimes occurs combined with
A 2004 research paper suggests that microbes can sometimes play an important role in forming gold deposits, transporting and precipitating gold to form grains and nuggets that collect in alluvial deposits.[73]
A 2013 study has claimed water in faults vaporizes during an earthquake, depositing gold. When an earthquake strikes, it moves along a fault. Water often lubricates faults, filling in fractures and jogs. About 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) below the surface, under very high temperatures and pressures, the water carries high concentrations of carbon dioxide, silica, and gold. During an earthquake, the fault jog suddenly opens wider. The water inside the void instantly vaporizes, flashing to steam and forcing silica, which forms the mineral quartz, and gold out of the fluids and onto nearby surfaces.[74]
Seawater
The world's
A number of people have claimed to be able to economically recover gold from
History
The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold, which can be found free or "native". Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, c. 40,000 BC.[80]
The oldest gold artifacts in the world are from Bulgaria and are dating back to the 5th millennium BC (4,600 BC to 4,200 BC), such as those found in the Varna Necropolis near Lake Varna and the Black Sea coast, thought to be the earliest "well-dated" finding of gold artifacts in history.[81][71][82] Several prehistoric Bulgarian finds are considered no less old – the golden treasures of Hotnitsa, Durankulak, artifacts from the Kurgan settlement of Yunatsite near Pazardzhik, the golden treasure Sakar, as well as beads and gold jewelry found in the Kurgan settlement of Provadia – Solnitsata ("salt pit"). However, Varna gold is most often called the oldest since this treasure is the largest and most diverse.[83]
Gold artifacts probably made their first appearance in Ancient Egypt at the very beginning of the pre-dynastic period, at the end of the fifth millennium BC and the start of the fourth, and smelting was developed during the course of the 4th millennium; gold artifacts appear in the archeology of Lower Mesopotamia during the early 4th millennium.
The oldest known map of a gold mine was drawn in the 19th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt (1320–1200 BC), whereas the first written reference to gold was recorded in the 12th Dynasty around 1900 BC.
Gold is mentioned in the Amarna letters numbered 19[88] and 26[89] from around the 14th century BC.[90][91]
Gold is mentioned frequently in the
In
During Mansa Musa's (ruler of the Mali Empire from 1312 to 1337) hajj to Mecca in 1324, he passed through Cairo in July 1324, and was reportedly accompanied by a camel train that included thousands of people and nearly a hundred camels where he gave away so much gold that it depressed the price in Egypt for over a decade, causing high inflation.[93] A contemporary Arab historian remarked:
Gold was at a high price in Egypt until they came in that year. The mithqal did not go below 25 dirhams and was generally above, but from that time its value fell and it cheapened in price and has remained cheap till now. The mithqal does not exceed 22 dirhams or less. This has been the state of affairs for about twelve years until this day by reason of the large amount of gold which they brought into Egypt and spent there [...].
—Chihab Al-Umari, Kingdom of Mali[94]
The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the gold ornaments displayed in great profusion by
El Dorado is applied to a legendary story in which precious stones were found in fabulous abundance along with gold coins. The concept of El Dorado underwent several transformations, and eventually accounts of the previous myth were also combined with those of a legendary lost city. El Dorado, was the term used by the Spanish Empire to describe a mythical tribal chief (zipa) of the Muisca native people in Colombia, who, as an initiation rite, covered himself with gold dust and submerged in Lake Guatavita. The legends surrounding El Dorado changed over time, as it went from being a man, to a city, to a kingdom, and then finally to an empire.[citation needed]
Beginning in the
Gold played a role in western culture, as a cause for desire and of corruption, as told in children's fables such as Rumpelstiltskin—where Rumpelstiltskin turns hay into gold for the peasant's daughter in return for her child when she becomes a princess—and the stealing of the hen that lays golden eggs in Jack and the Beanstalk.
The top prize at the Olympic Games and many other sports competitions is the gold medal.
75% of the presently accounted for gold has been extracted since 1910, two-thirds since 1950.
One main goal of the
The
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Minoan jewellery, 2300–2100 BC, gold, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
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Sumerian earrings with cuneiform inscriptions, 2093–2046 BC, gold, Sulaymaniyah Museum, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq
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Ancient Egyptian statuette of Amun, 945–715 BC, gold, Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Ancient Egyptian signet ring, 664–525 BC, gold, British Museum
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Ancient Chinese cast openwork dagger hilt, 6th–5th centuries BC, gold, British Museum[104]
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Ancient Greek stater, 323–315 BC, gold, Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Etruscanfunerary wreath, 4th–3rd century BC, gold, Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Quimbayalime container, 5th–9th century, gold, Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Anglo-Saxon belt buckle from Sutton Hoo with a niello interlace pattern, 7th century, gold, British Museum[105]
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, USA
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Pre-Columbian pendant with two bat-head warriors who carry spears, 11th–16th century, gold, Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Judgment of Paris, 16th century, enamelled gold, British Museum[107]
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Rococo box, by George Michael Moser, 1741, gold, Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Rococo candelabrum, by Jean Joseph de Saint-Germain, c.1750, gilt bronze, Cleveland Museum of Art
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Rococo snuff box with Minerva, by Jean-Malquis Lequin, 1750–1752, gold and painted enamel, Louvre[108]
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Neoclassical washstand (athénienne or lavabo), 1800–1814, legs, base and shelf of yew wood, gilt bronze mounts, iron plate beneath shelf, Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Gothic Revival clock, unknown French maker, c.1835-1840, gilt and patinated bronze, Museum of Decorative Arts, Paris
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Art Nouveau teapot, by Alphonse Debain, gilt silver and ivory, Museum of Decorative Arts
Etymology
Gold is
The symbol Au is from the Latin aurum 'gold'.[112] The Proto-Indo-European ancestor of aurum was *h₂é-h₂us-o-, meaning 'glow'. This word is derived from the same root (Proto-Indo-European *h₂u̯es- 'to dawn') as *h₂éu̯sōs, the ancestor of the Latin word aurora 'dawn'.[113] This etymological relationship is presumably behind the frequent claim in scientific publications that aurum meant 'shining dawn'.[114]
Culture
In popular culture gold is a high standard of excellence, often used in awards.
Religion
The first known prehistoric human usages of gold were religious in nature.[117]
In some forms of Christianity and Judaism, gold has been associated both with the sacred and evil. In the
In Islam,[119] gold (along with silk)[120][121] is often cited as being forbidden for men to wear.[122] Abu Bakr al-Jazaeri, quoting a hadith, said that "[t]he wearing of silk and gold are forbidden on the males of my nation, and they are lawful to their women".[123] This, however, has not been enforced consistently throughout history, e.g. in the Ottoman Empire.[124] Further, small gold accents on clothing, such as in embroidery, may be permitted.[125]
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Theia was seen as the goddess of gold, silver and other gemstones.[126]
According to Christopher Columbus, those who had something of gold were in possession of something of great value on Earth and a substance to even help souls to paradise.[127]
Wedding rings are typically made of gold. It is long lasting and unaffected by the passage of time and may aid in the ring symbolism of eternal vows before God and the perfection the marriage signifies. In Orthodox Christian wedding ceremonies, the wedded couple is adorned with a golden crown (though some opt for wreaths, instead) during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites.[further explanation needed]
On 24 August 2020, Israeli archaeologists discovered a trove of early Islamic gold coins near the central city of Yavne. Analysis of the extremely rare collection of 425 gold coins indicated that they were from the late 9th century. Dating to around 1,100 years back, the gold coins were from the Abbasid Caliphate.[128]
Production
According to the United States Geological Survey in 2016, about 5,726,000,000 troy ounces (178,100 t) of gold has been accounted for, of which 85% remains in active use.[129]
Mining and prospecting
Since the 1880s, South Africa has been the source of a large proportion of the world's gold supply, and about 22% of the gold presently accounted is from South Africa. Production in 1970 accounted for 79% of the world supply, about 1,480 tonnes. In 2007 China (with 276 tonnes) overtook South Africa as the world's largest gold producer, the first time since 1905 that South Africa had not been the largest.[130]
In 2020, China was the world's leading gold-mining country, followed in order by Russia, Australia, the United States, Canada, and Ghana.[11]
In South America, the controversial project Pascua Lama aims at exploitation of rich fields in the high mountains of Atacama Desert, at the border between Chile and Argentina.
It has been estimated that up to one-quarter of the yearly global gold production originates from artisanal or small scale mining.[131][132][133]
The city of
The
During the 19th century,
Grasberg mine located in Papua, Indonesia is the largest gold mine in the world.[137]
Extraction and refining
The average gold mining and extraction costs were about $317 per troy ounce in 2007, but these can vary widely depending on mining type and ore quality; global mine production amounted to 2,471.1 tonnes.[138]
After initial production, gold is often subsequently refined industrially by the Wohlwill process which is based on electrolysis or by the Miller process, that is chlorination in the melt. The Wohlwill process results in higher purity, but is more complex and is only applied in small-scale installations.[139][140] Other methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of gold include parting and inquartation as well as cupellation, or refining methods based on the dissolution of gold in aqua regia.[141]
Recycling
In 1997, recycled gold accounted for approximately 20% of the 2700 tons of gold supplied to the market.[142] Jewelry companies such as Generation Collection and computer companies including Dell conduct recycling[143]
As of 2020, the amount of carbon dioxide CO2 produced in mining a kilogram of gold is 16 tonnes, while recycling a kilogram of gold produces 53 kilograms of CO2 equivalent. Approximately 30 percent of the global gold supply is recycled and not mined as of 2020.[144]
Consumption
This article needs to be updated.(May 2022) |
Country | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 |
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India | 442.37 | 745.70 | 986.3 | 864 | 974 |
China | 376.96 | 428.00 | 921.5 | 817.5 | 1120.1 |
United States | 150.28 | 128.61 | 199.5 | 161 | 190 |
Turkey | 75.16 | 74.07 | 143 | 118 | 175.2 |
Saudi Arabia | 77.75 | 72.95 | 69.1 | 58.5 | 72.2 |
Russia | 60.12 | 67.50 | 76.7 | 81.9 | 73.3 |
United Arab Emirates | 67.60 | 63.37 | 60.9 | 58.1 | 77.1 |
Egypt | 56.68 | 53.43 | 36 | 47.8 | 57.3 |
Indonesia | 41.00 | 32.75 | 55 | 52.3 | 68 |
United Kingdom | 31.75 | 27.35 | 22.6 | 21.1 | 23.4 |
Other Persian Gulf Countries | 24.10 | 21.97 | 22 | 19.9 | 24.6 |
Japan | 21.85 | 18.50 | −30.1 | 7.6 | 21.3 |
South Korea | 18.83 | 15.87 | 15.5 | 12.1 | 17.5 |
Vietnam | 15.08 | 14.36 | 100.8 | 77 | 92.2 |
Thailand | 7.33 | 6.28 | 107.4 | 80.9 | 140.1 |
Total | 1466.86 | 1770.71 | 2786.12 | 2477.7 | 3126.1 |
Other Countries | 251.6 | 254.0 | 390.4 | 393.5 | 450.7 |
World Total | 1718.46 | 2024.71 | 3176.52 | 2871.2 | 3576.8 |
The consumption of gold produced in the world is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry.[13][148]
According to the World Gold Council, China was the world's largest single consumer of gold in 2013, overtaking India.[149]
Pollution
Gold production is associated with contribution to hazardous pollution.[150]
Low-grade gold ore may contain less than one
It was once common to use mercury to recover gold from ore, but today the use of mercury is largely limited to small-scale individual miners.[155] Minute quantities of mercury compounds can reach water bodies, causing heavy metal contamination. Mercury can then enter into the human food chain in the form of methylmercury. Mercury poisoning in humans causes incurable brain function damage and severe retardation.[156]
Gold extraction is also a highly energy-intensive industry, extracting ore from deep mines and grinding the large quantity of ore for further chemical extraction requires nearly 25 kWh of electricity per gram of gold produced.[157]
Monetary use
Gold has been
The first known coins containing gold were struck in Lydia, Asia Minor, around 600 BC.[92] The talent coin of gold in use during the periods of Grecian history both before and during the time of the life of Homer weighed between 8.42 and 8.75 grams.[159] From an earlier preference in using silver, European economies re-established the minting of gold as coinage during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.[160]
After
Central banks continue to keep a portion of their liquid reserves as gold in some form, and metals exchanges such as the London Bullion Market Association still clear transactions denominated in gold, including future delivery contracts. Today, gold mining output is declining.[162] With the sharp growth of economies in the 20th century, and increasing foreign exchange, the world's gold reserves and their trading market have become a small fraction of all markets and fixed exchange rates of currencies to gold have been replaced by floating prices for gold and gold future contract. Though the gold stock grows by only 1% or 2% per year, very little metal is irretrievably consumed. Inventory above ground would satisfy many decades of industrial and even artisan uses at current prices.
The gold proportion (fineness) of alloys is measured by karat (k). Pure gold (commercially termed fine gold) is designated as 24 karat, abbreviated 24k. English gold coins intended for circulation from 1526 into the 1930s were typically a standard 22k alloy called crown gold,[163] for hardness (American gold coins for circulation after 1837 contain an alloy of 0.900 fine gold, or 21.6 kt).[164]
Although the prices of some
The ISO 4217 currency code of gold is XAU.[165] Many holders of gold store it in form of bullion coins or bars as a hedge against inflation or other economic disruptions, though its efficacy as such has been questioned; historically, it has not proven itself reliable as a hedging instrument.[166] Modern bullion coins for investment or collector purposes do not require good mechanical wear properties; they are typically fine gold at 24k, although the American Gold Eagle and the British gold sovereign continue to be minted in 22k (0.92) metal in historical tradition, and the South African Krugerrand, first released in 1967, is also 22k (0.92).[167]
The special issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin contains the highest purity gold of any bullion coin, at 99.999% or 0.99999, while the popular issue Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coin has a purity of 99.99%. In 2006, the United States Mint began producing the American Buffalo gold bullion coin with a purity of 99.99%. The Australian Gold Kangaroos were first coined in 1986 as the Australian Gold Nugget but changed the reverse design in 1989. Other modern coins include the Austrian Vienna Philharmonic bullion coin and the Chinese Gold Panda.[168]
Price
Like other precious metals, gold is measured by troy weight and by grams. The proportion of gold in the alloy is measured by karat (k), with 24 karat (24k) being pure gold (100%), and lower karat numbers proportionally less (18k = 75%). The purity of a gold bar or coin can also be expressed as a decimal figure ranging from 0 to 1, known as the millesimal fineness, such as 0.995 being nearly pure.
The price of gold is determined through trading in the gold and
History
Historically gold
The largest gold depository in the world is that of the
After 15 August 1971 Nixon shock, the price began to greatly increase,[173] and between 1968 and 2000 the price of gold ranged widely, from a high of $850 per troy ounce ($27.33/g) on 21 January 1980, to a low of $252.90 per troy ounce ($8.13/g) on 21 June 1999 (London Gold Fixing).[174] Prices increased rapidly from 2001, but the 1980 high was not exceeded until 3 January 2008, when a new maximum of $865.35 per troy ounce was set.[175] Another record price was set on 17 March 2008, at $1023.50 per troy ounce ($32.91/g).[175]
On 2 December 2009, gold reached a new high closing at $1,217.23.[176] Gold further rallied hitting new highs in May 2010 after the European Union debt crisis prompted further purchase of gold as a safe asset.[177][178] On 1 March 2011, gold hit a new all-time high of $1432.57, based on investor concerns regarding ongoing unrest in North Africa as well as in the Middle East.[179]
From April 2001 to August 2011, spot gold prices more than quintupled in value against the US dollar, hitting a new all-time high of $1,913.50 on 23 August 2011,
In August 2020, the gold price picked up to US$2060 per ounce after a total growth of 59% from August 2018 to October 2020, a period during which it outplaced the Nasdaq total return of 54%.[182]
Gold futures are traded on the COMEX exchange.[183] These contacts are priced in USD per troy ounce (1 troy ounce = 31.1034768 grams).[184] Below are the CQG contract specifications outlining the futures contracts:
Gold (GCA) | |
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Exchange: | COMEX |
Sector: | Metal |
Tick Size: | 0.1 |
Tick Value: | 10 USD |
BPV: | 100 |
Denomination: | USD |
Decimal Place: | 1 |
Other applications
Jewelry
Because of the softness of pure (24k) gold, it is usually alloyed with other metals for use in jewelry, altering its hardness and ductility, melting point, color and other properties. Alloys with lower karat rating, typically 22k, 18k, 14k or 10k, contain higher percentages of copper, silver, palladium or other base metals in the alloy.[26] Nickel is toxic, and its release from nickel white gold is controlled by legislation in Europe.[26] Palladium-gold alloys are more expensive than those using nickel.[185] High-karat white gold alloys are more resistant to corrosion than are either pure silver or sterling silver. The Japanese craft of Mokume-gane exploits the color contrasts between laminated colored gold alloys to produce decorative wood-grain effects.
By 2014, the gold jewelry industry was escalating despite a dip in gold prices. Demand in the first quarter of 2014 pushed turnover to $23.7 billion according to a World Gold Council report.
Gold
Electronics
Only 10% of the world consumption of new gold produced goes to industry,
Though gold is attacked by free chlorine, its good conductivity and general resistance to oxidation and corrosion in other environments (including resistance to non-chlorinated acids) has led to its widespread industrial use in the electronic era as a thin-layer coating on electrical connectors, thereby ensuring good connection. For example, gold is used in the connectors of the more expensive electronics cables, such as audio, video and USB cables. The benefit of using gold over other connector metals such as tin in these applications has been debated; gold connectors are often criticized by audio-visual experts as unnecessary for most consumers and seen as simply a marketing ploy. However, the use of gold in other applications in electronic sliding contacts in highly humid or corrosive atmospheres, and in use for contacts with a very high failure cost (certain computers, communications equipment, spacecraft, jet aircraft engines) remains very common.[187]
Besides sliding electrical contacts, gold is also used in
The concentration of free electrons in gold metal is 5.91×1022 cm−3.
It is estimated that 16% of the world's presently-accounted-for gold and 22% of the world's silver is contained in electronic technology in Japan.[190]
Medicine
Metallic and gold compounds have long been used for medicinal purposes. Gold, usually as the metal, is perhaps the most anciently administered medicine (apparently by shamanic practitioners)
In the 19th century gold had a reputation as an
The apparent paradox of the actual toxicology of the substance suggests the possibility of serious gaps in the understanding of the action of gold in physiology.[195] Only salts and radioisotopes of gold are of pharmacological value, since elemental (metallic) gold is inert to all chemicals it encounters inside the body (e.g., ingested gold cannot be attacked by stomach acid). Some gold salts do have anti-inflammatory properties and at present two are still used as pharmaceuticals in the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions in the US (sodium aurothiomalate and auranofin). These drugs have been explored as a means to help to reduce the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis, and also (historically) against tuberculosis and some parasites.[196]
Gold alloys are used in
Gold, or alloys of gold and
The isotope gold-198 (half-life 2.7 days) is used in nuclear medicine, in some cancer treatments and for treating other diseases.[200][201]
Cuisine
- Gold can be used in food and has the
- medieval Europe as a decoration in food and drinks,[205]
- Danziger Goldwasser (German: Gold water of Danzig) or Goldwasser (English: Goldwater) is a traditional German herbal liqueur[206] produced in what is today Gdańsk, Poland, and Schwabach, Germany, and contains flakes of gold leaf. There are also some expensive (c. $1000) cocktails which contain flakes of gold leaf. However, since metallic gold is inert to all body chemistry, it has no taste, it provides no nutrition, and it leaves the body unaltered.[207]
- Vark is a foil composed of a pure metal that is sometimes gold,[208] and is used for garnishing sweets in South Asian cuisine.
Miscellanea
- Gold produces a deep, intense red color when used as a coloring agent in cranberry glass.
- In photography, gold toners are used to shift the color of sepia-toned prints, gold toners produce red tones. Kodak published formulas for several types of gold toners, which use gold as the chloride.[209]
- Gold is a good reflector of EA-6B Prowler.
- Gold is used as the reflective layer on some high-end CDs.
- Automobiles may use gold for heat shielding. McLaren uses gold foil in the engine compartment of its F1 model.[210]
- Gold can be manufactured so thin that it appears semi-transparent. It is used in some aircraft cockpit windows for de-icing or anti-icing by passing electricity through it. The heat produced by the resistance of the gold is enough to prevent ice from forming.[211]
- Gold is attacked by and dissolves in alkaline solutions of potassium or sodium cyanide process. Gold cyanide is the electrolyte used in commercial electroplating of gold onto base metals and electroforming.
- Gold chloride (gold nanoparticles.[212]
- Gold, when dispersed in nanoparticles, can act as a heterogeneous catalyst of chemical reactions.
- In recent years, gold has been used as a symbol of pride by the autism".[213]
Toxicity
Pure metallic (elemental) gold is non-toxic and non-irritating when ingested[214] and is sometimes used as a food decoration in the form of gold leaf.[215] Metallic gold is also a component of the alcoholic drinks Goldschläger, Gold Strike, and Goldwasser. Metallic gold is approved as a food additive in the EU (E175 in the Codex Alimentarius). Although the gold ion is toxic, the acceptance of metallic gold as a food additive is due to its relative chemical inertness, and resistance to being corroded or transformed into soluble salts (gold compounds) by any known chemical process which would be encountered in the human body.
Soluble compounds (
Gold metal was voted Allergen of the Year in 2001 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society; gold contact allergies affect mostly women.[218] Despite this, gold is a relatively non-potent contact allergen, in comparison with metals like nickel.[219]
A sample of the fungus Aspergillus niger was found growing from gold mining solution; and was found to contain cyano metal complexes, such as gold, silver, copper, iron and zinc. The fungus also plays a role in the solubilization of heavy metal sulfides.[220]
See also
- Bulk leach extractable gold, for sampling ores
- Chrysiasis (dermatological condition)
- Digital gold currency, form of electronic currency
- GFMS business consultancy
- Gold fingerprinting, use impurities to identify an alloy
- Gold standard in banking
- List of countries by gold production
- Tumbaga, alloy of gold and copper
- Iron pyrite, fool's gold
- Nordic gold, non-gold copper alloy
References
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- .
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Its scarcity makes it a useful store of value; however, its relative rarity reduced its utility as a currency, especially for transactions in small denominations.
- ISBN 9781588345172.
Its scarcity makes it a useful store of value; however, its relative rarity reduced its utility as a currency, especially for transactions in small denominations. ... Rarity is, nevertheless, in itself a source of value, and so is the degree of difficulty which surrounds the winning of the raw material, especially if it is exotic and has to be brought some distance. Gold is, geologically, a relatively rare material on Earth and occurs only in specific places which are remote from most other places.
- ^ a b "Gold Production & Mining Data by Country". 7 June 2023.
- ^ "Above-ground stocks". gold.org. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
- ^ a b c Soos, Andy (6 January 2011). "Gold Mining Boom Increasing Mercury Pollution Risk". Advanced Media Solutions, Inc. Oilprice.com. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 16 July 2021.
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- ^ "Gold: causes of color". Retrieved 6 June 2009.
- ISBN 978-0-381-98150-1.
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Further reading
- Bachmann, H. G. The lure of gold : an artistic and cultural history (2006) online
- Bernstein, Peter L. The Power of Gold: The History of an Obsession (2000) online
- Brands, H.W. The Age of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the New American Dream (2003) excerpt
- Buranelli, Vincent. Gold : an illustrated history (1979) online' wide-ranging popular history
- Cassel, Gustav. "The restoration of the gold standard." Economica 9 (1923): 171–185. online
- Eichengreen, Barry. Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919–1939 (Oxford UP, 1992).
- Ferguson, Niall. The Ascent of Money – Financial History of the World (2009) online
- Hart, Matthew, Gold: The Race for the World's Most Seductive Metal Gold : the race for the world's most seductive metal", New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013. ISBN 9781451650020
- Johnson, Harry G. "The gold rush of 1968 in retrospect and prospect". American Economic Review 59.2 (1969): 344–348. online
- Kwarteng, Kwasi. War and Gold: A Five-Hundred-Year History of Empires, Adventures, and Debt (2014) online
- Vilar, Pierre. A History of Gold and Money, 1450–1920 (1960). online
- Vilches, Elvira. New World Gold: Cultural Anxiety and Monetary Disorder in Early Modern Spain (2010).
External links
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). 1911. .
- Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Gold www.rsc.org
- Gold at The Periodic Table of Videos(University of Nottingham)
- Getting Gold 1898 book, www.lateralscience.co.uk
- Technical Document on Extraction and Mining of Gold at the Wayback Machine (archived 7 March 2008), www.epa.gov
- Gold element information – rsc.org