Beer in England
Beer has been brewed in England for thousands of years. As a
English
History
Romano-Celtic Britain
Brewing in what is now England was probably well established when the Romans arrived in 54 BC,[1] and certainly continued under them.
In the 1980s, archaeologists found the evidence that Rome's soldiers in Britain sustained themselves on
Chesterholm in modern Northumberland, dating to between AD90 and AD130. They reveal the garrisonat Vindolanda buying ceruese, or beer, as the legions doubtless did throughout the rest of Roman Britain, almost certainly from brewers in the local area.One list of accounts from Vindolanda mentions Atrectus the brewer (Atrectus cervesarius), the first named brewer in British history, as well as the first known professional brewer in Britain. The accounts also show purchases of bracis or braces, that is, emmer wheat (or malt), doubtless for brewing. Quite possibly the garrison bought the malt, and hired a local brewer to make beer from it for the troops.
In Roman Britain, brewing, both domestic and retail, must have been widespread: remains indicating the existence of Roman-era malting or brewing operations have been found from Somerset to Northumberland, and South Wales to Colchester. In the third and fourth centuries AD Roman hypocaust technology, for supplying central heating to homes, was adapted in Britain to build permanent corn dryers/maltings, and the remains of these double-floored buildings, with underground flues, are found in Roman towns as well as on Roman farms.[2]
British brewing is generally thought to have been part of a wider Celtic tradition. Since this was well before the introduction of hops, other flavourings such as honey, meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) and mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) may have been used.[3]
Middle Ages: Ale-wands, ale-wives and ale-conners
Beer was one of the most common drinks during the Middle Ages.[5] It was consumed daily by all social classes in the northern and eastern parts of Europe where grape cultivation was difficult or impossible.[citation needed] Beer provided a considerable amount of the daily calories in the northern regions. In England, the per capita consumption was 275–300 liters (60–66 gallons) a year by the Late Middle Ages, and beer was drunk with every meal.[citation needed]
In the Middle Ages, ale would have been brewed on the premises from which it was sold. Alewives would put out an ale-wand to show when their beer was ready. The mediaeval authorities were more interested in ensuring adequate quality and strength of the beer than discouraging drinking. Gradually, men became involved in
An
It is sometimes said that:
The Ale Conner was a type of early tax-man whose job it was to test the quality and strength of beer, not by quaffing, but by sitting in a puddle of it! They travelled from pub to pub clad in sturdy leather britches. Beer was poured on a wooden bench and the Conner sat in it. Depending on how sticky they felt it to be when they stood up, they were able to assess its alcoholic strength and impose the appropriate duty.[8]
However, the accuracy of the colourful legend is doubtful.[9]
1400–1699: Rise of hopped beer
The use of hops in beer was written of as early as 822 by a
In
In the 15th century, an unhopped beer would have been known as an ale, while the use of hops would make it a beer. Hopped beer was imported to England from the Netherlands as early as 1400 in Winchester, and hops were being planted in England by 1428. At the time, ale and beer brewing were carried out separately, no brewer being allowed to produce both. The Brewers Company of London stated "no hops, herbs, or other like thing be put into any ale or liquore wherof ale shall be made – but only liquor (water), malt, and yeast." This comment is sometimes misquoted as a prohibition on hopped beer.[10] However, hopped beer was opposed by some, e.g.
Ale is made of malte and water; and they the which do put any other thynge to ale than is rehersed, except yest, barme, or goddesgood [three words for yeast], doth sophysticat there ale. Ale for an
Oten malte or any other corne doth ... Beere is made of malte, of hoppes, and water; it is a naturall drynke for a doche [Dutch] man, and nowe of late dayes [recently] it is moche vsed in Englande to the detryment of many Englysshe men ... for the drynke is a colde drynke. Yet it doth make a man fatte, and doth inflate the bely, as it doth appere by the doche mennes faces and belyes.[11]
A survey in 1577 of drinking establishment in England and Wales for taxation purposes[12] recorded 14,202 alehouses, 1,631 inns, and 329 taverns, representing one pub for every 187 people.[13]
1700–1899: Industry and empire
The early 18th century saw the development of a popular new style of dark beer in London:
, achieved great success financially.The large London porter breweries pioneered many technological advances, such as the construction of large storage vats, the use of the thermometer (about 1760), the hydrometer (1770), and attemperators (about 1780).
The 18th century also saw the development of India pale ale. Among the earliest known named brewers whose beers were exported to India was George Hodgson of the Bow Brewery,
The late 18th century saw a system of
The beer engine (a simple lift-pump), a device for manually
The
Demand for the export style of pale ale, which had become known as "India pale ale" (IPA), developed in England around 1840. IPA became a popular product in England.[18] Some brewers dropped the term "India" in the late 19th century, but records indicated that these "pale ales" retained the features of earlier IPA.[19]
A pale and well-hopped style of beer was developed in
In 1880, prime minister
In the 19th century, a typical brewery produced three or four mild ales, usually designated by a number of Xs, the weakest being X, the strongest XXXX. They were considerably stronger than the milds of today, with the gravity ranging from around 1.055 to 1.072 (about 5.5% to 7%
Continental lagers began to be offered in pubs in the late 19th century, but remained a small part of the market for many decades.
1900 to 1949: Temperance and war
The
The First World War measures had a particularly dramatic effect upon mild ale. As the biggest-selling beer, it suffered the largest cut in gravity when breweries had to limit the average original gravity of their beer to 1.030. In order to be able to produce some stronger beer – which was exempt from price controls and thus more profitable – mild was reduced to 1.025 or lower.[24]
English breweries continued to brew a range of bottled, and sometimes draught, stouts until the Second World War and beyond. They were considerably weaker than the pre-war versions (down from 1.055–1.060 to 1.040–1.042) and around the strength that porter had been in 1914. The drinking of porter, with its strength slot now occupied by single stout, steadily declined, and production ceased in the early 1950s.[25] However, Irish-brewed stouts, particularly Guinness, remained firmly popular.
In the early 20th century, serving draught beer from pressurised containers began. Artificial carbonation was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1936, with Watney's experimental pasteurised beer Red Barrel, although this method of serving beer did not take hold in the UK until the late 1960s.
1950 to 1999: Megabreweries and microbreweries
In 1960 almost 40 percent of beer drunk nationally was sold in bottled form, although the figure was 60 percent in the south of England, falling to 20 percent in the North of England.[26] Pale ale had replaced mild as the beer of choice for the majority of drinkers.
A consumer organisation, the
At the time, brewing was dominated by the "big six" breweries: Whitbread, Scottish and Newcastle, Bass Charrington, Allied Breweries, Courage Imperial and Watneys.[29]
There were also dozens of regional breweries, although the number was dwindling as a result of takeovers, and the microbrewery sector consisted of just four long-standing brewpubs. Most pubs were owned by breweries and only allowed to offer the owning brewery's beers ("the tie"). CAMRA also campaigned against the tendency of smaller brewers to be bought up by larger ones, against short measures, for the preservation of historically significant pubs, and for increased choice and longer opening hours for pubs. CAMRA also produced a Good Beer Guide and campaigned for the preservation of mild ale, which was now seen as an endangered style.[30]
English drinkers became more interested in imported beers during the 1970s and 1980s, partly as a result of increased foreign travel and partly because of promotion of the subject by beer writers such as Michael Jackson, with his 1977 The World Guide to Beer. Newly popular foreign brands included Beck's from Germany, Heineken and Grolsch from the Netherlands, Leffe and Hoegaarden from Belgium, Peroni from Italy, San Miguel from the Philippines, Budweiser and Sierra Nevada from the US and Corona Extra from Mexico.[31] A number of bars specialise in imported beer, with food and decor to match, Belgian and Bavarian themes being the most common.
In 1972, Martin Sykes established
Two pieces of legislation, known as
2000 to present: hops and hipsters
A change to beer taxation,
By 2004, the term real ale had been expanded to include
Interest in imported beer continued to rise, with an influx of Eastern European workers making
A piece of legislation popularly known as the "twenty four-hour drinking", officially the Licensing Act 2003 came into force in 2005. This removed the previous national restrictions on opening hours, allowing pubs and licensed premises to open for any or all of a twenty four-hour period, subject to agreement with the local licensing authorities. In practice, most pubs made only minor changes to their opening hours.
Although its founding father, Michael Jackson, died in 2007, modern beer writing was burgeoning, with beer columns appearing alongside wine columns in the quality press. Beer writing was to evolve into beer blogging, leaders in both fields including Martyn Cornell,[38] Pete Brown, Roger Protz and Melissa Cole.[39]
In July 2007, a law was introduced to forbid smoking in all enclosed public places in England, including pubs.[40]
The popularity of lager fell from 74.5 per cent in 2008 to 74.3 per cent and the Observer publication suggested that British beer drinkers' "love affair with carbonated beers may finally have peaked". The 2010 edition of the Good Beer Guide showed that there were more than 700 real-ale brewers in the UK at the time of publication — the highest number since the Second World War and four times as many since the founding of Camra. Iain Loe, a spokesman for Camra, explained a preference for moderate alcohol levels and a perception that real ale was healthier as responsible for the shift.[41]
Since the 2010s, there has been what some media outlets describe as an "explosion" of interest in craft beer.
Although the choice available to English beer drinkers in the mid-2010s is perhaps unparalleled,[42] there are concerns about the future of pubs, with about 30 closing per week.[46] Bucking the trend somewhat are craft beer outlets, the Wetherspoons chain,[47] and the micropub movement
The Wetherspoons chain has expanded to nearly 900 outlets over its 25-year history, most of them being former shops, banks and so on, rather than traditional pub premises.
With cask ale having a secure future, the Campaign for Real Ale has (as of March 2016[update]) been reconsidering its aims, with the options including focusing on the preservation of pubs.[51]
Levels of alcohol consumption among young people in England is significantly lower than previous generations, leading to the rise in popularity of lower-alcohol beers.[52][53] Major brewers have introduced alcohol-free varieties of established brands including Guinness and Heineken, and new brands have emerged to cater to the low-alcohol market including Lucky Saint.
English beer styles
Bitter
Bitter is the broad term applied to a well-hopped
- Session or ordinary bitter have strength up to 4.1 per cent ABV. The majority of English beers with the name IPA will be found in this group, such as Greene King IPA, Flowers IPA, Wadworth Henrys Original IPA, etc. These session bitters are not as strong and hoppy as the 18th and 19th century IPAs (or as an India Pale Ale would be in the USA) although IPAs with modest gravities (below 1.040) have been brewed in England since at least the 1920s.[55] This is the most common strength of bitter sold in English pubs, accounting for 16.9 per cent of pub sales.[56]
- Best bitter have strength between 3.8 per cent and 4.7 per cent ABV. In the United Kingdom, Bitter above 4.2 per cent ABV accounts for just 2.9 per cent of pub sales.[56] The disappearance of weaker bitters from some brewer's rosters means "best" bitter is actually the weakest in the range.
- Premium bitter have strength of 4.8 per cent ABV and over. Also known as extra special bitter, for instance Fuller's ESB.
- Golden ale or summer ales were developed in the late 20th century by breweries to compete with the pale lager market. A typical golden ale has an appearance and profile similar to that of a pale lager. Malt character is subdued and the hop profile ranges from spicy to citrus; common hop additions include Styrian Golding and Cascade. Alcohol is in the 4% to 5% range ABV. The style was marketed in 1989 by John Gilbert, a former brewer at Watney in Mortlake, London, who had opened his own operation, the Hop Back Brewery, in Salisbury, England. His aim was to develop a pale ale that could be as refreshing as lager. The result was a drier and hoppier pale ale he called "Summer Lightning", after a novel by PG Wodehouse; it won several awards and inspired numerous imitators.[57]
- India Pale Ale – although it is often said that Fuller, Smith and Turner's Bengal Lancer, and to emphasise the Indian connection in their branding.
Brown ale
English
Mild
Mild in modern times is generally considered to be a low-
Mild is often thought to be partly a survival of the older style of hop-less brewing (hops were introduced in the 16th century), partly as a cheaper alternative to bitter (for a long time mild was a penny a pot, and bitter beer tuppence), and partly a sustaining but relatively unintoxicating beverage suitable for lunchtime drinking by manual workers. But in reality, mild was probably not hopped differently from other beers of the day, since the term "mild" referred primarily to a lack of the sour tang contributed by age, and not a lack of hop character or alcoholic strength,
Once sold in every pub, mild experienced a catastrophic fall in popularity after the 1960s and was in danger of disappearing from many parts of the United Kingdom. In recent years the explosion of microbreweries has led to a partial recovery, and an increasing number of mild (sometimes labelled 'Dark') brands are now being brewed. Most of these are in the more modern interpretation of "mild"...a sweeter brew with lower alcoholic strength.
Light mild is similar but pale in colour, for instance
Burton Ale
Burton Ale is a
Old ale
Old ale is a term applied to dark, malty beers above 4.5%
Porter and Stout
Variations on the style include
London porter differs from stout in having generally lower gravity and lighter body, closer to bitter. Porter as distinct from stout virtually disappeared during the mid-20th century, but has had a modest revival since the 1980s (e.g.
Archaic styles
Mum, a strong wheat beer with herbal flavouring.[64]
West Country White Beer, a
Wobble was historically a low-strength ale that was provided on site to workers in particularly heavy and thirst-inducing occupations, such as foundries. However, modern-day beers called Wobble tend to be strong.[69]
Lager
Despite the traditional English beer being
Other lagers popular in England include
Indian cuisine is very popular in England and special lagers such as Cobra Beer have been developed to accompany it.
Serving beer
Temperature
Beer in England is usually served at cellar temperature (between 10–14 °C (50–57 °F)),[
Cask ale and beer
Keg ale
In the early 20th century, draught beer started to be served from pressurised containers. Artificial carbonation was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1936, with Watney's experimental pasteurised beer Red Barrel. By the early 1970s the term "draught beer" almost exclusively referred to beer served under pressure as opposed to the traditional cask or barrel beer.
The
Nitrokeg
Nitrogen is used under high pressure when dispensing dry stouts (such as Guinness) and other creamy beers because it displaces CO2 to (artificially) form a rich tight
Keykeg
Since the 2000s, a number of brewers and outlets have been introducing a variation on keg dispense. Keykegs deliver the product under gas pressure, but it is internally held in plastic bag, rather like a
Almost any kind of beer can be delivered in this format, although it tends to be mainly associated with imported, stronger, and speciality beers. The keykeg format is suitable for transporting beer internationally, unlike traditional cask ales, allowing pubs and other outlets to offer a cosmopolitan range. On the other hand, this is a plastic single-use keg. What is, environmentally a major disadvantage.
Sparkler
A sparkler is a device that can be attached to the nozzle of a beer engine.
There is some dispute about the benefits of a sparkler. There is an argument that the sparkler can reduce the flavour and aroma, especially of the hops, in some beers.[77] The counter argument is that the sparkler takes away harshness.[78] A pub may favour sparklers because the larger head they produce means it does not need to supply as much beer.[citation needed]
Breweries may state whether or not a sparkler is preferred when serving their beers. Generally, breweries in northern England serve their beers with a sparkler attached and breweries in the south without.[79]
Bottled beer
Whilst
Outlets
The English
Some on-licensed establishments are considered
Most
The English do not have a long-standing tradition of beer festivals like the Munich Oktoberfest, but the idea of a "beer exhibition" where a wide variety can be sampled has been enthusiastically taken up since the 1970s. The largest is CAMRA's Great British Beer Festival held every August. Local CAMRA branches organise smaller festivals in most vicinities. Beer festivals often include competitions to judge the best beer.
Glassware
Historical drinking vessels
A
A
A
Current beer glasses
Beer is now generally sold in
- Conical glasses are shaped, as the name suggests, as an inverted truncated cone around 6 inches (15 cm) tall and tapering by about 1 inch (25 mm) in diameterover its height.
- The nonic, a variation on the conical design, where the glass bulges out a couple of inches from the top; this is partly for improved grip, partly to prevent the glasses from sticking together when stacked, and partly to give strength and stop the rim from becoming chipped or "nicked".[88] The term "nonic" derives from "no nick".
- Jug glasses, Barrel glasses, or "dimple mugs", are shaped more like a large mug with a handle. They are moulded with a grid pattern of thickened glass on the outside, somewhat resembling the segmentation of a WWII-era hand grenade. The dimples prevent the glass slipping out of the fingers in a washing-up bowl, and the design of the glass emphasises strength, also to withstand frequent manual washing. These design features became less important when manual washing was superseded by machine washing. from the 1960s onwards. Dimpled glasses are now rarer than the other types and are regarded as more traditional.[89] This sort of glass is also known as a "Handle" due to the handle on the glass. They are popular with the older generation and people with restricted movement in their hands which can make holding a usual pint glass difficult.[citation needed]
-
Glass tankard
-
British dimpled glass pint jug
-
"Conical" pint glass
-
"Nonic" pint glass.
-
Current Guinness glass
Brewing
Ingredients
The most celebrated English
Maris Otter is the most celebrated barley used in a brewing malt. Malts can be treated in a number of ways, particularly by degrees of roasting, to obtain different colours and flavours. Oats, wheat malt or unmalted barley may also be included in the mash.
Water—known as "liquor"—is an important ingredient in brewing, and larger breweries often draw supplies from their own wells. Burton upon Trent (see below) is famed for the suitability of its water for brewing, and its mineral balance is often artificially copied.
Top-fermenting yeasts stay on the surface of fermenting beer whilst active, hence top-fermented beers tend to be less naturally clear than lagers and finings are sometimes used to clarify them. Modern breweries carefully maintain their own distinctive strains of yeast.
English brewers are allowed a free hand in the use of adjuncts which can include honey, ginger and spices, although this practice is not common.
Breweries
English brewing is often considered to have a four-tier structure.
- International
- National breweries Wells and Young's. These are "new" nationals, formed by mergers and takeovers of former regional breweries. The old "big six" national breweries (Whitbread, Scottish and Newcastle, Bass Charrington, Allied Breweries, Courage Imperial and Watneys) were all absorbed into international corporations.
- Regional breweries, often owned and run by successive generations of a family. Elgood's Brewery, Wisbechis an example.
- brewpubs, a volatile sector that has undergone considerable expansion in the past 30 years.[90]
Brewpubs
In Britain during the 20th century most of the traditional pubs which brewed their own beer in the brewhouse round the back of the pub, were bought out by larger breweries and ceased brewing on the premises. By the mid-1970s only four
Brewpubs subsequently resurged, particularly with the rise of the Firkin pub chain, most of whose pubs brewed on the premises, running to over one hundred at peak. However, that chain was sold and eventually its pubs ceased brewing their own beer. The resulting decline in brewpubs was something of a boon to other forms of microbrewing, as it led to an availability of trained craft brewers and brewing equipment.
British brewpubs are not required to double up as restaurants, as is the case in some jurisdictions. Many specialise in ale, whilst others brew continental styles such as lager and
The tie
After the development of the large London
Most such breweries, such as the
The period since the 1980s saw many breweries absorbed by, or becoming by take-overs, larger companies in the food, hotel or property sectors. The low returns of a pub-owning business led to many breweries selling their pub estates, especially those in cities, often to a new generation of small chains, many of which have now grown considerably and have a national presence. Other
A free house is a pub that is free of the control of any one particular brewery. Free houses can, but do not necessarily, serve a varied selection range of guest beers. Some pub chains do so as well.
Burton upon Trent
For centuries,
The town is still home to seven brewers:
- Worthington White Shield.
- Anheuser-Busch InBev
- Burton Bridge Brewery, a small brewery founded in 1982 by Geoff Mumford and Bruce Wilkinson.
- Tower Brewery, a microbrewery
- Cottage Brewery, its retail outlet being the nearby Old Cottage Inn
- Black Hole Brewery, a microbrewery subsidiary of Kammac, a cask supplier
The Bass Museum of Brewing—renamed the
A by-product of the brewing industry, figuratively and literally, is the Marmite factory in the town: Marmite being made from spent brewer's yeast. Together with the breweries this can give the area a distinctive smell.
A pale and well hopped style of beer was developed in Burton in parallel with the development of
The fame of Burton ales gave rise to the English euphemism "gone for a Burton" during World War II, meaning to be missing or have died.
The town's connection with the brewing industry is celebrated by the sculpture of the Burton Cooper in the shopping centre.
Burton upon Trent is also known in beer technology circles for the
Home brewing
Since 1963 it has been legal to brew any amount of beer at home, without a licence, providing it is not sold. Home brewing is a reasonably popular hobby, with many towns having home brew shops. Ale is usually brewed, the required equipment being simpler than that for lager.
Breweriana
Advocacy and organisations
- The British Beer and Pub Association represents large brewers.[94]
- The Independent Family Brewers of Britain represents regional brewers. It campaigns in favour of the Tie.
- The Campaign for a Fair Pint are an organisation of publicans campaigning against the Tie.[95]
- Perfect Pint – website and mobile application allowing users to search and share information about great Real Ales based on personal tastes, location and current pubs availability[96]
- The Society of Independent Brewers represents small brewers.[97]
- The Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) represents consumers
- surprise inspections.[98]
- Real ale's most enthusiastic fans are hobbyists known as tickers or scoopers who try to outdo each other in sampling as many varieties as possible.[99][100] They are not known to be organised.
See also
- List of breweries in England
- Beer in the United Kingdom
- Welsh beer
- Scottish beer
- Irish beer
- Beer in Sussex
- Dutch beer
Notes
- fermented beverage known in Britannia Brewery History, quoting Ian Spencer Hornsey: A History of Beer and Brewing
- ^ Cornell, Martyn: Beer
- ^ "Programmes - Most Popular - All 4". Channel 4.
- ^ Helston History. Blue Anchor Inn.
- ^ Richard W.Unger (2007). Beer in the Middle Ages. University of Pennsylvania Press.
- ^ [ Martyn Cornell Beer: the Story of the Pint]
- ^ "Ale-conner". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 538.
- ^ "Kicking Off". www.ryeandbattleobserver.co.uk.
- ^ Cornell, Martyn: Beer, the Story of a Pint
- ^ "Myth 2: Hops were forbidden by Henry VI". 24 September 2007.
- ^ Andrewe Boorde. A Compendyous Regymentor a Dyetary of helth. (1557), fol. G.ii – iii.
- ^ Monckton, Herbert Anthony (1966). A History of English Ale and Beer. Bodley Head. p. 101.
- ISBN 978-0-19-965578-6. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
- ISBN 9780854046300– via Google Books.
- ^ "Statute Law Revision: Fourteenth Report, The Scottish Law Commission (1993)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 January 2012. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
- ^ "A brief history of licensing" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2006.
- ^ "British Beer and the British Pub Culture, Joseph Allen McCulloch, 2007". Archived from the original on 21 August 2014. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
- ^ Daniels, p. 155
Cornell, p. 104 - ^ Foster, p. 65
- ^ Simmonds, Peter Lund (1858). The Dictionary of Trade Products, Manufacturing, and Technical Terms: With a Definition of the Moneys, Weights, and Measures of All Countries. G. Routledge. p. 272.
- ^ "The history of home brewing". www.boakandbailey.com. 24 February 2019. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- ISBN 9780937381687.
- ^ "Page Not Found | The Western Front Association". www.westernfrontassociation.com. Archived from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
{{cite web}}
: Cite uses generic title (help) - ^ Sutula, David (November 1997). "Brewing in Styles: Mild Ale – Back from the Brink of Extinction?". Brewing Techniques Magazine. 5 (6).
- ^ "Endangered beers | Zythophile". Zythophile.wordpress.com. 22 May 2012. Retrieved 9 November 2012.
- ^ "Mild or Bitter." Economist [London, England] 18 June 1960: 1225+. The Economist Historical Archive 1843–2006. Web. 19 August 2011.
- ^ "Welcome thebeerdiary.com - BlueHost.com". www.thebeerdiary.com.
- ^ "Join". CAMRA.
- ^ "Whatever Happened to the Big Six?". Archived from the original on 6 November 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
- ^ "Mild". CAMRA.
- ^ "The top 20 UK beer brands show a return to ale". www.supanet.com.
- ISBN 0-7153-9147-X.
- ^ "Refurb for Tim Martin's first outlet". Property News. Morning Advertiser. Archived from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 26 February 2010.
- ^ For instance, the group's chairman, Tim Martin, was named as the most influential player in the British pub industry in 2013 Morning Advertiser on Time Martin
- ^ "What Happened to the Firkin Pubs | Good Beer, Good Pubs". www.goodbeergoodpubs.co.uk.
- ^ a b "Rise of the microbrewery: Small but perfectly formed". Independent. 23 October 2011.
- ^ Correspondent, Harry Wallop, Consumer Affairs (17 May 2007). "Britain braced for Polish beer invasion" – via www.telegraph.co.uk.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Zythophile". Zythophile.
- ^ "Taking the beard out of beer!".
- ^ Langton, David (1 December 2006). "Ban on smoking in pubs to come into force on 1 July – UK Politics, UK". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 28 May 2009. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
- ^ Jamie Doward and Raj Sandhu (12 September 2010). "Real ale sales on the rise as Britain's beer drinkers tire of lager". The Observer. Retrieved 21 June 2014.
- ^ a b Naylor, Tony (13 August 2014). "The craft beer revolution: how hops got hip". The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.
- ^ "Cheers! Brits getting a taste for "hipster" beers". The Independent. 22 February 2015.
- ^ Cornell, Martyn (16 May 2015). "Why Meantime sold up to SAB Miller – the inside story".
- ^ "Backlash after Camden Town sale". Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
- ^ Smithers, Rebecca (11 August 2014). "Pubs closing at rate of 31 a week". The Guardian – via www.theguardian.com.
- ^ "JD Wetherspoon | Contradicts Trend | Pub Closures". www.movehut.co.uk. 13 May 2012.
- ^ Phil Oakley (20 March 2019). "Has time been called on JD Wetherspoon's growth prospects?". investorschronicle.co.uk.
- ^ "Wetherspoons to open 900th Pub Next Week". Archived from the original on 24 March 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
- ^ "Community fixers? The mighty rise of the micropub". www.newstatesman.com. 9 June 2021.
- ^ "CAMRA founder criticised over BBC Breakfast appearance". morningadvertiser.co.uk.
- ^ Smale, Will (20 June 2019). "Young drinkers lead the trend for alcohol-free beer". bbc.co.uk. BBC News. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- ^ "'Nolo beer' sales rocket thanks to young teetotallers". bbc.co.uk. BBC News. 12 March 2020. Retrieved 16 April 2024.
- ^ "Camra on Nitrokeg bitters". Archived from the original on 25 May 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ "Brewing records". London Metropolitan Archives: Whitbread and Barclay Perkins.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ ISSN 1475-3545.
- ^ "Hop Back Summer Lightning « Beer Culture with Des de Moor". desdemoor.co.uk. Retrieved 5 June 2010.
- ^ "Beervana". Beervana.
- ^ Manns Brown Ale – a bottle with real character Archived 21 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "What was AK? « Zythophile". 24 January 2009. Archived from the original on 24 January 2009.
- ^ "Sara Hughes Dark Ruby Mild". Archived from the original on 28 February 2010. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
- ^ Back to the local, Maurice Gorham, Faber & Faber, 1949
- ^ [1] Archived 5 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Cornell, Martyn (22 May 2012). "Endangered beers".
- ^ "Dictionary". lexicon.x10host.com.
- ^ "Blue Anchor". www.spingoales.com.
- ^ "Brewery History: 112, pp. 31-40". www.breweryhistory.com.
- ^ Martyn Cornell (29 August 2007). "Myth 1: Ralph Harwood invented porter as a substitute for three-threads".
- ^ "RateBeer". www.ratebeer.com.
- ^ Garrett Oliver. "The Oxford Companion to Beer definition of sparkler". Retrieved 21 January 2022.
- ^ "CAMRA on Keg Beer". Archived from the original on 15 March 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
- ^ Burns, David (6 July 2013). "Beer on Nitro". Lake Bluff Brewing Company. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013.
- ^ "Key keg mystery unravelled". Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
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References
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al.
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Further reading
- G. Long, ed. "Ale". The penny cyclopædia. Society for the diffusion of useful knowledge. 1833. p 285.