Indian cuisine
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Indian cuisine consists of a variety of regional and traditional cuisines native to the Indian subcontinent. Given the diversity in soil, climate, culture, ethnic groups, and occupations, these cuisines vary substantially and use locally available spices, herbs, vegetables, and fruits.
Indian food is also heavily influenced by religion, in particular Hinduism and Islam, cultural choices and traditions.[1][2]
Historical events such as invasions, trade relations, and
Indian cuisine has shaped the history of
History
Indian cuisine reflects an 8,000-year history of various groups and cultures interacting with the Indian subcontinent, leading to diversity of flavours and regional cuisines found in modern-day India. Later, trade with British and Portuguese influence added to the already diverse Indian cuisine.[7][8]
Prehistory and Indus Valley civilization
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See also: Meluhha, Indus–Mesopotamia relations, and Indian maritime history
After 9000 BCE, a first period of indirect contacts between
By 3000 BCE, turmeric, cardamom, black pepper and mustard were harvested in India.
From Around 2350 BCE the evidence for imports from the Indus to
Vedic age
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The ancient
Antiquity
Early diet in India mainly consisted of legumes, vegetables, fruits, grains, dairy products, and honey.[citation needed] Staple foods eaten today include a variety of lentils (dal), whole-wheat flour (aṭṭa), rice, and pearl millet (bājra), which has been cultivated in the Indian subcontinent since 6200 BCE.[8]
Over time, segments of the population embraced vegetarianism during the Śramaṇa movement[9][10] while an equitable climate permitted a variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains to be grown throughout the year.
A food classification system that categorised any item as
Consumption of
Ingredients mentioned in ancient Indian scripture
While many ancient Indian recipes have been lost in history, one can look at ancient texts to see what was eaten in ancient and pre-historic India.
- Classical Sanskrit) is mentioned many times in Rigvedaand other Indian scriptures as one of the principal grains in ancient India
- Betel leaf[17]—primary use is as a wrapper for the chewing of areca nut or tobacco, where it is mainly used to add flavour; may also be used in cooking, usually raw, for its peppery taste
- mirchi bajjiand mirapakaya bajji
- Curd—a traditional yogurt or fermented milk product, originating from the Indian subcontinent, usually prepared from cow's milk, and sometimes buffalo milk, or goat milk
- Ghee—a class of clarified butter that originated in ancient India, commonly used in the Indian subcontinent, Middle-Eastern cuisine, traditional medicine, and religious rituals
- Honey[22]—the spiritual and supposed therapeutic use of honey in ancient India was documented in both the Vedas and the Ayurveda texts
- Jain goddess Ambikais traditionally represented as sitting under a mango tree
- Indus Valley civilizationand is one of the important spices used in the Indian subcontinent today
- Bhoomidevi (the earth goddess) and Lord Ganesha(the one fond of the many-seeded fruit)
- Rice—cultivated in the Indian subcontinent from as early as 5,000 BC
- Rice cake—quite a variety are available[23]
- Rose apple—mainly eaten as a fruit and also used to make pickles (chambakka achar)
- Saffron[24]—almost all saffron grows in a belt from Spain in the west to Kashmir in the east
- Salt[24]—considered to be a very auspicious substance in Hinduism and is used in particular religious ceremonies like house-warmings and weddings; in Jainism, devotees lay an offering of raw rice with a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion, and salt is sprinkled on a person's cremated remains before the ashes are buried
- Sesame oil[24]—popular in Asia, especially in Korea, China, and the South Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, where its widespread use is similar to that of olive oil in the Mediterranean
- Sorghum[20]—commonly called jwaarie, jowar, jola, or jondhalaa, sorghum is one of the staple sources of nutrition
- Sugar—produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times, its cultivation spread from there into modern-day Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass
- Sugarcane[20]—the earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India; the earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts
- Turmeric[21]—used widely as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking
Middle Ages to the 16th century
During the
India was later invaded by tribes from Central Asian cultures, which led to the emergence of Mughlai cuisine, a mix of Indian and Central Asian cuisine. Hallmarks include seasonings such as saffron.[25]
Colonial Period
The
-
![Bhang eaters in India c. 1790. Bhang is an edible preparation of cannabis native to the Indian subcontinent. It was used by Hindus in food and drink as early as 1000 BCE.[29]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Bhang_eaters_before_two_huts_%286124556163%29.jpg/230px-Bhang_eaters_before_two_huts_%286124556163%29.jpg)
Bhang eaters in India c. 1790. Bhang is an edible preparation of cannabis native to the Indian subcontinent. It was used by Hindus in food and drink as early as 1000 BCE.[29] -
A page from theNimatnama-i-Nasiruddin-Shahi, book of delicacies and recipes. It documents the fine art of making kheer. -
Medieval Indian Manuscript Nimatnama-i-Nasiruddin-Shahi (circa 16th century) showing samosas being served. -
![Bhang eaters in India c. 1790. Bhang is an edible preparation of cannabis native to the Indian subcontinent. It was used by Hindus in food and drink as early as 1000 BCE.[29]](/File:Bhang_eaters_before_two_huts_(6124556163).jpg)
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Ingredients
Many Indian dishes are cooked in vegetable oil, but peanut oil is popular in northern and western India, mustard oil in eastern India,[25] and coconut oil along the western coast, especially in Kerala and parts of southern Tamil Nadu.[31][self-published source?] Gingelly (sesame) oil is common in the south since it imparts a fragrant, nutty aroma.[32]
In recent decades, sunflower, safflower, cottonseed, and soybean oils have become popular across India.[33] Hydrogenated vegetable oil, known as Vanaspati ghee, is another popular cooking medium.[34] Butter-based ghee, or deshi ghee, is used commonly.
Many types of meat are used for Indian cooking, but chicken and mutton tend to be the most commonly consumed meats. Fish and beef consumption are prevalent in some parts of India, but they are not widely consumed except for coastal areas, as well as the north east.[citation needed]
The most important and frequently used spices and flavourings in Indian cuisine are whole or powdered
One popular spice mix is garam masala, a powder that typically includes seven dried spices in a particular ratio, including black cardamom, cinnamon (dalchini), clove (laung), cumin (jeera), black peppercorns, coriander seeds and anise star.[36][self-published source?]. Each culinary region has a distinctive garam masala blend—individual chefs may also have their own.
There are other spice blends which are popular in various regions. petal essences.
Regional cuisines
Cuisine differs across India's diverse regions as a result of variation in local culture, geographical location (proximity to sea, desert, or mountains), and economics. It also varies seasonally, depending on which fruits and vegetables are ripe.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Seafood plays a major role in the cuisine of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.[39] Staples of the diet of the Indigenous Andamanese traditionally include roots, honey, fruits, meat, and fish, obtained by hunting and gathering. Some insects were also eaten as delicacies.[40] Immigration from mainland of India, however, has resulted in variations in the cuisine.
Andhra Pradesh
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The cuisine of
Seafood is common in the coastal region of the state. Rice is the staple food (as is with all South Indian states) eaten with lentil preparations such as pappu (lentils) and pulusu (stew) and spicy vegetables or curries.
In Andhra, leafy greens or vegetables such as bottle-gourd and eggplant are usually added to dal. Pickles are an essential part of the local cuisine; popular among those are mango-based pickles such as usirikaya (gooseberry or amla), nimmakaya (lime), and tomato pickle.
Perugu (yogurt) is a common addition to meals, as a way of tempering spiciness. Breakfast items include dosa, pesarattu (mung bean dosa), vada, and idli.
Arunachal Pradesh
The staple food of Arunachal Pradesh is rice, along with fish, meat, and leaf vegetables.[42] Native tribes of Arunachal are meat eaters and use fish, eggs, beef, chicken, pork, and mutton to make their dishes.
Many varieties of rice are used. Boiled rice cakes wrapped in leaves are a popular snack. Thukpa is a kind of noodle soup common among the Monpa tribe of the region.[43]
Lettuce is the most common vegetable, usually prepared by boiling with ginger, coriander, and green chillies.[44]
Apong or
Assam
Rice is the staple food item and a huge variety of endemic rice varieties, including several varieties of sticky rice are a part of the cuisine in Assam. Fish, generally freshwater varieties, are widely eaten. Other non-vegetarian items include chicken, duck, squab, snails, silkworms, insects, goat, pork, venison, turtle, monitor lizard, etc.
The region's cuisine involves simple cooking processes, mostly barbecuing, steaming, or boiling.
A traditional meal in Assam begins with a khar, a class of dishes named after the main ingredient and ends with a tenga, a sour dish. Homebrewed rice beer or
West Bengal
Mughal cuisine is a universal influencer in the Bengali palate, and has introduced Persian and Islamic foods to the region, as well as a number of more elaborate methods of preparing food, like marination using ghee. Fish, meat (chicken, goat meat), egg, rice, milk, and sugar all play crucial parts in Bengali cuisine.[49]
Bengali cuisine can be subdivided into four different types of dishes, charbya (চারব্য), or food that is chewed, such as rice or fish; choṣya, or food that is sucked, such as ambal and tak; lehya (লেহ্য), or foods that are meant to be licked, like chuttney; and peya (পেয়ে), which includes drinks, mainly milk.[50]
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During the 19th century, many Odia-speaking cooks were employed in Bengal,[51] which led to the transfer of several food items between the two regions. Bengali cuisine is the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from the Indian subcontinent that is analogous in structure to the modern service à la russe style of French cuisine, with food served course-wise rather than all at once.[52]
Bengali cuisine differs according to regional tastes, such as the emphasis on the use of chilli pepper in the Chittagong district of Bangladesh[53] However, across all its varieties, there is predominant use of mustard oil along with large amounts of spices.
The cuisine is known for subtle flavours with an emphasis on fish, meat, vegetables, lentils, and rice.[54] Bread is also a common dish in Bengali cuisine, particularly a deep-fried version called luchi is popular. Fresh aquatic fish is one of its most distinctive features; Bengalis prepare fish in many ways, such as steaming, braising, or stewing in vegetables and sauces based on coconut milk or mustard.
East Bengali food, which has a high presence in West Bengal and Bangladesh, is much spicier than the West Bengali cuisine, and tends to use high amounts of chilli, and is one of the spiciest cuisines in India and the World.
Shondesh and Rashogolla are popular dishes made of sweetened, finely ground fresh cheese. For the latter, West Bengal and neighboring Odisha both claim to be the origin of dessert. Each state also has a geographical indication for their regional variety of rasgulla.[55][56]
The cuisine is also found in the state of Tripura and the Barak Valley of Assam.
Bihar
Bihari cuisine may include litti chokha,[57] a baked salted wheat-flour cake filled with sattu (baked chickpea flour) and some special spices, which is served with baigan bharta,[58] made of roasted eggplant (brinjal) and tomatoes.[59][60]
Among meat dishes, meat saalan[61] is a popular dish made of mutton or goat curry with cubed potatoes in garam masala.
Dalpuri is another popular dish in Bihar. It is salted wheat-flour bread, filled with boiled, crushed, and fried gram pulses.[62]
During the festival of
Other food items that are quite prominent in Bihar are, Pittha, Aaloo Bhujiya, Reshmi Kebab, Palwal ki mithai, and Puri Sabzi.[63]
Chandigarh
Chhattisgarh
Chhattisgarh cuisine is unique in nature and not found in the rest of India, although the staple food is rice, like in much of the country. Many Chhattisgarhi people drink liquor brewed from the mahuwa flower palm wine (tadi in rural areas).[65] Chhattisgarhi cuisines varies as per special occasions and festivals like Thethari and Khurmi, fara, gulgule bhajiya, chausela, chila, aaersa are prepared in regional festivals.[66] The tribal people of the Bastar region of Chhattisgarh eat ancestral dishes such as mushrooms, bamboo pickle, bamboo vegetables, etc.[67][68]
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
The local cuisine resembles the cuisine of Gujarat. Ubadiyu[69] is a local delicacy made of vegetables and beans with herbs. The common foods include rice, roti, vegetables, river fish, and crab. People also enjoy buttermilk and chutney made of different fruits and herbs.[70]
Daman and Diu
Daman and Diu is a union territory of India which, like Goa, was a former colonial possession of Portugal. Consequently, both native Gujarati food and traditional Portuguese food are common. Being a coastal region, the communities are mainly dependent on seafood. Normally, rotli and tea are taken for breakfast, rotla and saak for lunch, and chokha along with saak and curry are taken for dinner. Some of the dishes prepared on festive occasions include puri, lapsee, potaya, dudh-plag, and dhakanu.[71] While alcohol is prohibited in the neighbouring state of Gujarat, drinking is common in Daman and Diu. Better known as the "pub" of Gujarat. All popular brands of alcohol are readily available.
Delhi
Delhi was once the capital of the Mughal empire, and it became the birthplace of Mughlai cuisine. Delhi is noted for its street food. The Paranthewali Gali in Chandani Chowk is just one of the culinary landmarks for stuffed flatbread (parathas).
Delhi has people from different parts of India, thus the city has different types of food traditions; its cuisine is influenced by the various cultures. Punjabi cuisine is common, due to the dominance of Punjabi communities.[72]
Delhi cuisine is actually an amalgam of different Indian cuisines modified in unique ways. This is apparent in the different types of street food available. Kababs, kachauri, chaat, Indian sweets, Indian ice cream (commonly called kulfi), and even Western food items like sandwiches and patties, are prepared in a style unique to Delhi and are quite popular.[73]
Goa
The area has a tropical climate, which means the spices and flavours are intense. Use of kokum is a distinct feature of the region's cuisine.
Goan cuisine is mostly seafood and meat-based; the staple foods are rice and fish.
The cuisine of Goa is influenced by its Hindu origins, 400 years of Portuguese colonialism, and modern techniques.[74][75]
Bread, introduced by the Portuguese, is very popular, and is an important part of the Goan breakfast, most frequently in the form of toast.
Gujarat
Gujarati cuisine is primarily vegetarian. The typical Gujarati
Sabzi is a dish of different combinations of vegetables and spices which may be
Many Gujarati dishes are simultaneously sweet, salty (like handvo), and spicy. In mango season, keri no ras (fresh mango pulp) is often an integral part of the meal. Spices also vary seasonally. For example, garam masala is used much less in summer.
Gujarati snacks include sev khamani,[78] khakhra, dal vada,[79] methi na bhajiya,[80] khaman, bhakharwadi and more.
Regular fasting, with diets limited to milk, dried fruit, and nuts, is a common practice,[81]
Haryana
Cattle being common in Haryana, dairy products are a common component of its cuisine.[82][83]
Specific regional dishes include kadhi, pakora, besan masala roti,[84] bajra aloo roti,[85] churma, kheer, bathua raita,[86] methi gajar,[87] singri ki sabzi,[88] and tomato chutney.
In the past, its staple diet included bajra khichdi,[89] rabdi, onion chutney,[90] and bajra ki roti.[91] In non-vegetarian cuisine it includes kukad kadhai[92] and chicken tikka masala.
Himachal Pradesh
The daily diet of
Jammu and Kashmir
The cuisine of Jammu and Kashmir is from two regions of the state: Jammu division and Kashmir Valley. Kashmiri cuisine has evolved over hundreds of years. Its first major influence was the food of the Kashmiri Hindus and Buddhists.
The cuisine was later influenced by the cultures which arrived with the invasion of Kashmir by Timur from the area of modern Uzbekistan. Subsequent influences have included the cuisines of Central Asia and the North Indian plains.
The most notable ingredient in Kashmiri cuisine is mutton, of which over 30 varieties are known.[97] Wazwan is a multicourse meal in the Kashmiri tradition, the preparation of which is considered an art.[98]
Kashmiri pandit food is elaborate, and an important part of the Pandits' ethnic identity. Kashmiri pandit cuisine usually uses dahi (yogurt), oil, and spices such as turmeric, red chilli, cumin, ginger, and fennel, though they do not use onion and garlic.[99] Birayanis are quite popular, and are the speciality of Kashmir.
The Jammu region is famous for its sund panjeeri, patisa, rajma with rice and Kalari cheese.
Dogri food includes ambal (sour pumpkin dish),[100] khatta meat,[101] kulthein di dal,[102] dal chawal,[103] maa da madra (black gram lentils in yogurt)[104] and Uriya.
Many types of pickles are made including mango, kasrod, and girgle. Street food is also famous which include various types of chaats, specially gol gappas, gulgule, chole bhature, rajma kulcha[105] and dahi bhalla.
Jharkhand
Staple foods in Jharkhand are rice, dal and vegetables. Famous dishes include chirka roti,[106] pittha, malpua, dhuska, arsa roti[107] and litti chokha.[108]
Local alcoholic drinks include handia, a rice beer, and mahua daru, made from flowers of the mahua tree (Madhuca longifolia).[109][110]
Karnataka
A number of dishes, such as idli, rava idli, Mysore masala dosa, etc., were invented here and have become popular beyond the state of Karnataka[citation needed]. Equally, varieties in the cuisine of Karnataka have similarities with its three neighbouring South Indian states, as well as the states of Maharashtra and Goa to its north. It is very common for the food to be served on a banana leaf, especially during festivals and functions.
Karnataka cuisine can be very broadly divided into
This cuisine covers a wide spectrum of food from pure vegetarian and vegan to meats like pork, and from savouries to sweets.
Typical dishes include
The Kodagu district is known for spicy pork curries,[113] while coastal Karnataka specialises in seafood. Although the ingredients differ regionally, a typical Kannadiga oota (Kannadiga meal) is served on a banana leaf. The coastal districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi have slightly varying cuisines, which make extensive use of coconut in curries and frequently include seafood.[114][115]
Kerala
Contemporary Kerala food includes vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Fish and seafood play a major role in Kerala cuisine, as Kerala is a coastal state. An everyday Kerala meal in most households consists of rice with fish curry made of sardines, mackerel, seer fish, king fish, pomfret, prawns, shrimp, sole, anchovy, or parrotfish, (mussels, oysters, crabs, squid, scallops are not rare), and vegetable curry and stir-fried vegetables with or without coconut traditionally known as thoran or mizhukkupiratti. As Kerala has large number of inland water bodies, freshwater fish are also abundant, and part of regular meals. It is common in Kerala to have a breakfast with non-vegetarian dishes in restaurants, in contrast to other states in India. Chicken or mutton stews, lamb, chicken, beef, pork, egg curry, and fish curry with tapioca for breakfast are also widely enjoyed.
Kerala cuisine reflects its rich trading heritage. Over time, various cuisines have blended with indigenous dishes, while foreign ones have been adapted to local tastes.[116] Significant Arab, Syrian, Portuguese, Dutch, Jewish, and Middle Eastern influences exist in this region's cuisine.
Most of Kerala's Hindus, except its Brahmin community, eats fish, chicken, beef, pork, eggs, and mutton.[119] The Brahmin are famed for their vegan cuisine, especially varieties of sambar and rasam. A thick vegetable stew popular in South and Central India called avial is believed to have originated in southern Kerala. The avial, eaten widely in the state, is an important vegetarian dish in Kerala sadya. In most Kerala households, a typical meal consists of rice served along with vegetables and fish or meat dishes. Kerala also has a variety of breakfast dishes like idli, dosa, appam, idiyappam, puttu, parotta and pathiri served with sambar, coconut chutney, mutta curry (egg curry), kadala (chickpea) curry, green peas, chicken curry, beef curry and mutton curry.[120]
The
Popular desserts are
Halva is one of the most commonly found or easily recognized sweets in bakeries throughout Kerala, and originated from the Gujarathi community in Calicut.
Ladakh
Ladakhi cuisine is from the two districts of
, known in Ladakhi as ngampe (roasted barley flour). Edible without cooking, tsampa makes useful trekking food.Strictly Ladakhi dishes include skyu and chutagi, both heavy and rich soup pasta dishes, skyu being made with root vegetables and meat, and chutagi with leafy greens and vegetables.[126] As Ladakh moves toward a cash-based economy, foods from the plains of India are becoming more common.[127]
As in other parts of Central Asia, tea in Ladakh is traditionally made with strong green tea, butter, and salt. It is mixed in a large churn and known as gurgur cha, after the sound it makes when mixed. Sweet tea (cha ngarmo) is common now, made in the Indian style with milk and sugar. Most of the surplus barley that is produced is fermented into chang, an alcoholic beverage drunk especially on festive occasions.[128]
Lakshadweep
The cuisine of Lakshadweep prominently features seafood and coconut. Local food consists of spicy non-vegetarian and vegetarian dishes.
The culinary influence of Kerala is quite evident in the cuisines of Lakshadweep, since the island lies in close proximity to Kerala. Coconut and sea fish serve as the foundation of most meals.
The people of Lakshadweep drink large amounts of coconut water, which is the most abundant aerated drink on the island. Coconut milk is the base for most of the curries. All the sweet or savory dishes have a touch of famous Malabar spices. Local people also prefer to have dosa, idlis, and various rice dishes.[129]
Madhya Pradesh
The cuisine in Madhya Pradesh varies regionally. Wheat and meat are common in the north and west of the state, while the wetter south and east are dominated by rice and fish. Milk is a common ingredient in Gwalior and Indore.
The
The culinary specialty of the Malwa and Indore regions of central Madhya Pradesh is poha (flattened rice); usually eaten at breakfast with jalebi.[132]
Beverages in the region include .
Maharashtra
Popular dishes include are some of the dishes cooked for breakfast and snacking in evenings.
Popular spicy meat dishes include those that originated in the Kolhapur region. These are the Kolhapuri Sukka mutton, areas have their own distinct cuisines.
The cuisine of Vidarbha uses groundnuts, poppy seeds, jaggery, wheat, jowar, and bajra extensively. A typical meal consists of rice, roti, poli, or bhakar, along with varan and aamtee[141]—lentils and spiced vegetables. Cooking is common with different types of oil.
Savji food from Vidarbha is well known all over Maharashtra. Savji dishes are very spicy and oily. Savji mutton curries are very famous.
Like other coastal states, an enormous variety of vegetables, fish, and coconuts exists, where they are common ingredients. Peanuts and cashews are often served with vegetables. Grated coconuts are used to flavour many types of dishes, but coconut oil is not widely used; peanut oil is preferred.[142]
Malwani
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Malwani cuisine is a specialty of the tropical area which spans from the shore of Deogad Malwan to the southern Maharashtrian border with Goa. The unique taste and flavor of Malwani cuisine comes from Malwani masala and use of coconut and kokam.
The staple foods are rice and fish. Various kinds of red and green fish, prawns, crab, and shellfish curries (also called mashacha sar in the Malwani language) are well known, along with kombadi (chicken) wade and mutton prepared Malwani style. Mohari mutton is also one of the distinct delicacies of Malwani cuisine.
A large variety of fish is available in the region, which include
All these fish are available in dried form, including prawns, which are known as sode. Local curries and chatanis are also prepared with dried fish.
Different types of rice breads and pancakes add to the variety of Malwani cuisine and include tandlachi bhakari,[145] ghawane, amboli,[146] patole, appe, tandalachi and shavai (rice noodles). These rice breads can be eaten specially flavored with coconut milk, fish curries, and chicken or mutton curries.
Sole kadi made from kokam and coconut milk is a signature appetizer drink . For vegetarians, Malwani delicacies include alloochi bhaji, alloochi gathaya, kalaya watanyacha, and sambara (black gram stew).
The sweets and desserts include ukadiche modak,[147] Malawani khaje, khadakahde kundiche ladu, shegdanyache ladu, tandalchi kheer, and tandalachi shavai ani ras (specially flavored with coconut milk).
Manipur
Manipuri cuisine is represented by the cuisine of the Meitei people who form the majority population in the central plain. Meitei food are simple, tasty, organic and healthy. Rice with local seasonal vegetables and fish form the main diet.
Most of the dishes are cooked like vegetable stew, flavored with either fermented fish called ngari, or dried and smoked fish.
The most popular Manipuri dish is .
Another popular dish is the savory cake called paknam, made of a lentil flour stuffed with various ingredients such as banana inflorescence, mushrooms, fish, vegetables etc., and baked covered in turmeric leaves.
Along with spicy dishes, a mild side dish of steamed or boiled sweet vegetables are often served in the daily meals. The Manipuri salad dish called singju, made of finely julienned cabbage, green papaya, and other vegetables, and garnished with local herbs, toasted sesame powder and lentil flour is extremely popular locally, and often found sold in small street side vendors.
Singju is often served with bora, which are fritters of various kinds, and also kanghou, or oil-fried spicy veggies.[148] Cooked and fermented soybean is a popular condiment in all Manipuri kitchens.
The staple diet of Manipur consists of rice, fish, large varieties of leafy vegetables (of both aquatic and terrestrial). Manipuris typically raise vegetables in a kitchen garden and rear fishes in small ponds around their house. Since the vegetables are either grown at home or obtained from local market, the cuisines are very seasonal, each season having its own special vegetables and preparations.
The taste is very different from mainland Indian cuisines because of the use of various aromatic
Meghalaya
Other common foods in Meghalaya include minil songa (steamed sticky rice) and sakkin gata.
Like other tribes in the northeast, the Garos ferment rice beer, which they consume in religious rites and secular celebrations.[151]
Mizoram
The cuisine of Mizoram differs from that of most of India, though it shares characteristics to other regions of Northeast India and North India.
Rice is the staple food of Mizoram, while Mizos love to add non-vegetarian ingredients in every dish. Fish, chicken, pork and beef are popular meats among Mizos. Dishes are served on fresh banana leaves. Most of the dishes are cooked in mustard oil.
Meals tend to be less spicy than in most of India. Mizos love eating boiled vegetables along with rice. A popular dish is bai, made from boiling vegetables (spinach, eggplant, beans, and other leafy vegetables) with bekang (fermented soya beans) or sa-um, fermented pork fat served with rice. Sawhchiar is another common dish, made of rice and cooked with pork or chicken.[152][153]
Nagaland
The cuisine of
Fresh herbs and other local greens also feature prominently in the Naga cuisine. The Naga use oil sparingly, preferring to ferment, dry, and smoke their meats and fish.
Traditional homes in Nagaland have external kitchens that serve as smokehouses.[155]
A typical meal consists of rice, meat, a chutney, a couple of stewed or steamed vegetable dishes, flavored with ngari or akhuni. Desserts usually consist of fresh fruits.
Odisha
The cuisine of Odisha relies heavily on local ingredients. Flavours are usually subtle and delicately spiced. Fish and other seafood, such as crab and shrimp, are very popular, and chicken and mutton are also consumed.
Pakhala, a dish made of rice, water, and dahi (yogurt), that is fermented overnight, is very popular in summer in rural areas.[156] Odias are very fond of sweets, so dessert follows most meals.
Popular Odia dishes include
Odisha and neighboring
Puducherry
The union territory of
Some favourite dishes include coconut curry,
Punjab
The cuisine of Punjab is known for its diverse range of dishes. It is closely related to the cuisine of the neighbouring Punjab province of Pakistan.
The state, being an agriculture center, is abundant with whole grains, vegetables, and fruits. Home-cooked and restaurant Punjabi cuisine can vary significantly.
Restaurant-style Punjabi cooking puts emphasis on creamy textured foods by using ghee, butter and cream, while home-cooked meals center around whole wheat, rice, and other ingredients flavored with various kinds of
Common dishes cooked at home are roti with daal and dahi (yogurt) with a side chutney and salad that includes raw onion, tomato, cucumber, etc.
The meals are also abundant of local and seasonal vegetables usually sautéed with spices such as cumin, dried coriander, red chili powder, turmeric, black cloves, etc. Masala chai is a favorite drink and is consumed in everyday life and at special occasions.
Many regional differences exist in the Punjabi cuisine based on traditional variations in cooking similar dishes, food combinations, preference of spice combination, etc. It is clear that "the food is simple, robust, and closely linked to the land."[162]
Certain dishes exclusive to Punjab, such as
The masala in a Punjabi dish traditionally consists of onion, garlic, ginger, cumin,
Common meat dishes in this region are Bhakra curry (goat) and fish dishes.[164] Dairy products are regularly enjoyed and usually accompany main meals in the form of dahi, milk, and milk-derived products such as lassi, paneer, and more.
Punjab has a large number of people following the
No description of Punjabi cuisine is complete without the myriad of famous desserts, such as
Many of the most popular elements of Anglo-Indian cuisine, such as tandoori foods, naan, pakoras and vegetable dishes with paneer, are derived from Punjabi styles.[165]
Punjabi food is well liked in the world for its flavors, spices, and, versatile use of produce, and so it is one of the most popular cuisines from the sub-continent. Last but not least are the chhole bhature and chhole kulche[166] which are famous all over the North India.
Rajasthan
Cooking in Rajasthan, an arid region, has been strongly shaped by the availability of ingredients. Food is generally cooked in milk or ghee, making it quite rich. Gram flour is a mainstay of Marwari food mainly due to the scarcity of vegetables in the area.[167]
Historically, food that could last for several days and be eaten without heating was preferred. Major dishes of a Rajasthani meal may include
Daal-baati is the most popular dish prepared in the state. It is usually supplemented with choorma, a mixture of finely ground baked rotis, sugar and ghee.[168]
Sikkim
In
Rice is the staple food of the area, and meat and dairy products are also widely consumed. For centuries, traditional fermented foods and beverages have constituted about 20 percent of the local diet.
Depending on altitudinal variation, finger millet, wheat, buckwheat, barley, vegetables, potatoes, and soybeans are grown. are some of the local dishes.
Alcoholic drinks are consumed by both men and women. Beef is eaten by
Sindh
Sindhi cuisine refers to the native cuisine of the
A typical meal in many Sindhi households includes wheat-based flatbread (
Some regular Sindhi dishes are sindhi kadhi,[174] sai bhaji, koki[175] and besan bhaji. Ingredients frequently used are mango powder, tamarind, kokum flowers, and dried pomegranate seeds.[176]
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu is noted for its deep belief that serving food to others is a service to humanity, as is common in many regions of India. The region has a rich cuisine involving both traditional non-vegetarian and vegetarian dishes.
Tamil food is characterised by its use of rice, legumes, and lentils, along with distinct aromas and flavours achieved by the blending of spices such as mustard, curry leaves, tamarind, coriander, ginger, garlic, chili pepper, cinnamon, clove, cardamom, cumin, nutmeg, coconut and rose water.
The traditional way of eating involves being seated on the floor, having the food served on a plantain leaf, and using the right hand to eat. After the meal the plantain leaf is discarded but becomes food for free-ranging cattle and goats.
A meal (called saapadu) consists of rice with other typical Tamil dishes on a plantain leaf. A typical Tamilian would eat on a plantain leaf as it is believed to give a different flavour and taste to food. Also growing in popularity are stainless-steel trays, plates with a selection of different dishes in small bowls.
Tamil food is characterized by tiffin, which is a light food taken for breakfast or dinner, and meals which are usually taken during lunch. The word "curry" is derived from the Tamil kari, meaning something similar to "sauce".[177][178]
Southern regions such as Tirunelveli, Madurai, Paramakudi, Karaikudi, Chettinad and Kongu Nadu are noted for their spicy non-vegetarian dishes.[179][180] Dosa, idli, pongal and biryani are some of the popular dishes that are eaten with chutney and sambar. Fish and other seafoods are also very popular, because the state is located on the coast. Chicken and goat meat are the predominantly consumed meats in Tamil Nadu.
A typical Tamil vegetarian meal is heavily dependent on rice, vegetables and lentil preparations such as rasam and sambar, but there are variations. They have influenced Kerala as well in their kootu, arachi vitta sambhar[181] and molagootals (mulligatawny soup).
As mentioned above, the Chettinad variety of food uses many strong spices, such as pepper, garlic, fennel seeds and onions. Tamil food tends to be spicy compared to other parts of India so there is a tradition of finishing the meal with dahi (yogurt) is considered a soothing end to the meal.
Notably, Tamil Brahmin cuisine, the food of the Iyers and Iyengar community, is characterized by slightly different meal times and meal structures compared to other communities within the state.
Historically vegetarian, the cuisine is known for its milder flavor and avoidance of onion and garlic (although this practice appears to be disappearing with time).
After a light morning meal of
Tiffin is the second meal of the day and features several breakfast favorites such as idli, rava idli, upma, dosa varieties, and vada, and is usually accompanied by chai.
Dinner is the simplest meal of the day, typically involving leftovers from either lunch or tiffin. Fresh seasonal fruit consumed in the state include bananas, papaya, honeydew and cantaloupe melons, jackfruit, mangos, apples,
Telangana
The cuisine of
Rice is the staple food of Telugu people. Starch is consumed with a variety of curries and lentil soups or broths.[184][185] Vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods are both popular.
Hyderabadi cuisine includes popular delicacies such as
Tripura
The Tripuri people are the original inhabitants of the state of Tripura in northeast India. Today, they comprise the communities of Tipra, Reang, Jamatia, Noatia, and Uchoi, among others. The Tripuri are non-vegetarian,[187] although they have a minority of Vaishnavite vegetarians.[188]
The major ingredients of Tripuri cuisine include vegetables, herbs, pork, chicken, mutton, fishes, turtle, shrimps, crabs, freshwater mussels, periwinkles, edible freshwater snails and frogs.
Uttar Pradesh
Traditionally,
Chaat, samosa, and pakora, among the most popular snacks in India, originate from Uttar Pradesh.[190][191]
Well-known dishes include are some of the popular desserts in this region.
The richness of Awadh cuisine lies not only in the variety of cuisine but also in the ingredients used like
.Mughlai cuisine is a style of cooking developed in the Indian subcontinent by the imperial kitchens of the Mughal Empire. It represents the cooking styles used in North India (especially Uttar Pradesh).
The cuisine is strongly influenced by Central Asian cuisine, the region where the Chagatai-Turkic Mughal rulers originally hailed from, and has strongly influenced the regional cuisines of Kashmir and the Punjab region.[194][192]
The tastes of Mughlai cuisine vary from extremely mild to spicy, and is often associated with a distinctive
A Mughlai course is an elaborate buffet of main course dishes with a variety of accompaniments.[195]
Uttarakhand
Food from
While making use of condiments such as jeera, haldi and rai common in other Indian cuisines, Uttarakhand cuisine also use exotic ingredients such as jambu, timmer, ghandhraini and bhangira.
Although the people in Uttarakhand also make dishes common in other parts of northern India, several preparations are unique to Uttarakhand such as rus, chudkani,[196] dubuk, chadanji,[197] jholi, kapa, and more.
Among dressed salads and sauces, kheere ka raita,[198] nimbu mooli ka raita,[199] daarim ki khatai and aam ka fajitha[200] are also popular.
The cuisine mainly consists of food from two different sub-regions, Garhwal and Kumaon, though their basic ingredients are the same.[201] Both Kumaoni and Garhwali styles make liberal use of ghee, lentils or pulses, vegetables and bhaat (rice). They also use badi (sun-dried urad dal balls) and mungodi (sun-dried moong dal balls) as substitutes for vegetables at times.
During festivals and other celebrations, the people of Uttarakhand prepare special refreshments which include both salty preparations such as bada and sweet preparations such as pua and singal. Uttarakhand also has several sweets (
Gallery
- North India
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Daulat Chaat in Old Delhi -
Butter chicken and butter naan -
Kashmiri Pulav -
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- West India
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Locho and Idada -
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Chhole Upma -
Tandoori lemonfish fry
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- East India
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Plantain dumplings -
Luchi Alur Torkari -
Bamboo steam rice -
Tamul Paan -
Prosad Thali -
Tan Ngang
- South India
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Khotto -
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Tirunelveli Halwa -
Prawn Biryani
Hindu fasting cuisine
Hindu people fast on days such as
Only certain kinds of foods are allowed to be eaten. These include milk and other dairy products (such as
Popular fasting dishes include farari chevdo,
Diaspora and fusion cuisines
The interaction of various
Indian Chinese cuisine
_(11960049916).jpg)
Indian Chinese cuisine, also known as Indo-Chinese cuisine originated in the 19th century among the
After 1947, many
Popular dishes include
Soups such as Manchow soup and sweet corn soup are very popular, whereas desserts include ice cream on honey-fried noodles and date pancakes.
Chowmein is now known as one of the most favorite Chinese dishes in India. Especially in West Bengal, it is one of the most loved street foods.
Indian Thai cuisine
Thai cuisine was
Malaysian Indian cuisine
Malaysian Indian cuisine, or the cooking of the ethnic Indian communities in Malaysia consists of adaptations of authentic dishes from India, as well as original creations inspired by the diverse food culture of Malaysia.
A typical Malaysian Indian dish is likely to be redolent with curry leaves, whole and powdered spice, and contains fresh coconut in various forms.
Ghee is still widely used for cooking, although vegetable oils and refined palm oils are now commonplace in home kitchens.
Indian Singaporean cuisine
Indian Singaporean cuisine refers to foods and beverages produced and consumed in Singapore that are derived, wholly or in part, from South Asian culinary traditions.
The great variety of Singaporean food includes Indian food, which tends to be Tamil cuisine, especially local Tamil Muslim cuisine, although North Indian food[213] has become more visible recently.
Indian dishes have become modified to different degrees, after years of contact with other Singaporean cultures, and in response to locally available ingredients, as well as changing local tastes.
Indian Indonesian cuisine
Indian-Indonesian cuisine refers to food and beverages in Indonesian cuisine that have influenced Indian cuisine—especially from Tamil, Punjabi, and Gujarati cuisine. These dishes are well integrated, such as appam, biryani, murtabak and curry.
Indian Filipino cuisine
The kare-kare, more popular in Luzon, on the other hand could trace its origins from the Seven Years' War when the British occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 with a force that included Indian sepoys, who had to improvise Indian dishes given the lack of spices in the Philippines to make curry. This is said to explain the name and its supposed thick, yellow-to-orange annatto and peanut-based sauce, which alludes to a type of curry.
Atchara of Philippines originated from the Indian achar, which was transmitted to the Philippines via the acar of the Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei.
Anglo-Indian cuisine
Anglo-Indian cuisine developed during the period of British colonial rule in India, as British officials interacted with their Indian cooks.[214]
Well-known Anglo-Indian dishes include
Desserts
Many Indian desserts, or
Many are flavoured with almonds and pistachios, spiced with cardamon, nutmeg, cloves and black pepper, and decorated with nuts, or with gold or silver leaf. Popular Indian desserts include
Beverages
Non-alcoholic beverages
Tea is a staple beverage throughout India, since the country is one of the largest producers of tea in the world. The most popular varieties of tea grown in India include Assam tea, Darjeeling tea and Nilgiri tea. It is prepared by boiling the tea leaves in a mix of water, milk, and spices such as cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, and ginger. In India, tea is often enjoyed with snacks like biscuits and pakoda.[citation needed]
Coffee is another popular beverage, but more popular in South India.[citation needed] Coffee is also cultivated in some parts of India. There are two varieties of coffee popular in India, which include Indian filter coffee and instant coffee.[citation needed]
Lassi is a traditional dahi (yogurt)-based drink in India.[219] It is made by blending yogurt with water or milk and spices. Salted lassi is more common in villages of Punjab and in Porbandar, Gujarat.[citation needed] Traditional lassi is sometimes flavoured with ground roasted cumin. Lassi can also be flavoured with ingredients such as sugar, rose water, mango, lemon, strawberry, and saffron.[220]
Thandai is a cold drink prepared with a mixture of almonds, fennel seeds, watermelon kernels, rose petals, pepper, poppy seeds, cardamom, saffron, milk and sugar. It is native to India and is often associated with the Maha Shivaratri and Holi or Holla mahalla festival. Sometimes bhaang (cannabis) is added to prepare special thandai.
Other beverages include
Modern carbonated cold drinks unique to southern India include beverages, such as panner soda or goli soda, a mixture of carbonated water, rose water, rose milk, and sugar, naranga soda, a mixture of carbonated water, salt and lemon juice, and nannari sarbath, a mixture with sarasaparilla.
Sharbats with carbonated water are the most popular non-alcoholic beverages in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Street shops in Central Kerala and Madurai region of Tamil Nadu are well known for these drinks which are also called kulukki sarbaths in Kerala.
-
Darjeeling tea in varieties. -
Indian filter coffee is popular in Southern India. -
Badam milk -
Holi Special Chilled Thandai
Alcoholic beverages
Beer
Most beers in India are either lagers (4.8 percent alcohol) or strong lagers (8.9 percent). The Indian beer industry has witnessed steady growth of 10–17 percent per year over the last ten years.[when?] Production exceeded 170 million cases during the 2008–2009 financial year.[223] With the average age of the population decreasing and income levels on the rise, the popularity of beer in the country continues to increase.
Others
.jpg)
Other popular alcoholic drinks in India include
Hadia is a rice beer, created by mixing herbs with boiled rice and leaving the mixture to ferment for around a week. It is served cold and is less alcoholic than other Indian liquors. Chuak is a similar drink from Tripura.
Chhaang is consumed by the people of Sikkim and the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region of West Bengal. It is drunk cold or at room temperature in summer, and often hot during cold weather. Chhaang is similar to traditional beer, brewed from barley, millet, or rice.[226]
Kallu (Chetthu Kallu) is a popular natural alcohol extracted from coconut and pine trees in Kerala. It is sold in local Kallu shops and is consumed with fried fish and chicken. Its alcoholic content is increased by addition of distilled alcohol.
Eating habits
Indians consider a healthy breakfast important. They generally prefer to drink tea or coffee with breakfast, though food preferences vary regionally. North Indian people prefer .
People of Gujarat prefer dhokla and milk, while south Indians prefer idli and dosa, generally accompanied by sambhar or sagu and various chutneys.[229]
Traditional lunch in India usually consists of a main dish of rice in the south and the east, and whole-wheat rotis in the north. It typically includes two or three kinds of vegetables, and sometimes items such as
Indian families often gather for "evening snack time", similar to tea time to talk and have tea and snacks.
Dinner is considered the main meal of the day.[230] Also, many households, especially in north and central India, prefer having sweets after the dinner (similar to the Western concept of dessert after meals).
Dietary practices
In India people often follow dietary practices based on their religious belief:
- Most Hindu communities consider beef taboo since they believed that Hindu scriptures condemn cow slaughter. Cow slaughter has been banned in many states of India,[231] with the exceptions of the North-Eastern states, West Bengal and Kerala.
- Vaishnavism followers generally are strict lacto-vegetarians due to an emphasis on Ahimsa. They also do not consume garlic and onions.[citation needed]
- Jains follow a strict form of lacto-vegetarianism, known as Jain vegetarianism, which in addition to being completely lacto-vegetarian, also excludes all root vegetables such as carrots and potatoes because when the root is pulled up, organisms that live around the root also die.[232]
- Muslims do not eat pork or pork products.
- Except in certain North-Eastern regions, canines are not considered suitable for consumption.
Etiquette
Traditionally, meals in India are eaten while seated either on the floor, or on very low stools or mattress. Food is most often eaten with the hands rather than cutlery.
Often roti is used to scoop curry without allowing it to touch the hand. In the wheat-producing north, a piece of roti is gripped with the thumb and middle finger and ripped off while holding the roti down with the index finger.
A somewhat different method is used in the south for dosai, adai, and uththappam, where the middle finger is pressed down to hold the bread and the forefinger and thumb used to grip and separate a small part. Traditional serving styles vary regionally throughout India.
Contact with other cultures has affected Indian dining etiquette. For example, the Anglo-Indian middle class commonly uses spoons and forks, as is traditional in Western culture.[233]
In South India, cleaned
Outside India
Indian migration has spread the culinary traditions of the subcontinent throughout the world. These cuisines have been adapted to local tastes, and have also affected local cuisines. The international appeal of curry has been compared to that of pizza.[235] Indian tandoor dishes such as chicken tikka also enjoy widespread popularity.[236]
Australia
A
Canada
As in the United Kingdom and the United States, Indian cuisine is widely available in
China
Indian food is gaining popularity in China, where there are many Indian restaurants in Beijing, Shanghai, and Shenzhen. Hong Kong alone has more than 50 Indian restaurants, some of which date back to the 1980s. Most of the Indian restaurants in Hong Kong are in Tsim Sha Tsui.[240]
Fiji
Indo-Fijians have a similar cuisine, often with Fijian influence.
Middle East
The Indian culinary scene in the
The large influx of Indian expatriates into Middle Eastern countries during the 1970s and 1980s led to a boom in Indian restaurants to cater to this population and was also widely influenced by the local and international cuisines.
Nepal
Indian cuisine is available in the streets of Nepalese cities, including Kathmandu and Janakpur.
Southeast Asia
Other cuisines which borrow inspiration from Indian cooking styles include Cambodian, Lao, Filipino, Vietnamese, Indonesian, Thai, and Burmese cuisines. The spread of vegetarianism in other parts of Asia is often credited to Hindu and Buddhist practices.[242]
Indian cuisine is very popular in Southeast Asia, due to the strong Hindu and Buddhist cultural influence in the region. Indian cuisine has had considerable influence on Malaysian cooking styles[5] and also enjoys popularity in Singapore.[243][244] There are numerous North and South Indian restaurants in Singapore, mostly in Little India.
Singapore is also known for fusion cuisine combining traditional Singaporean cuisine with Indian influences. Fish head curry, for example, is a local creation. Indian influence on Malay cuisine dates to the 19th century.[245]
United Kingdom
The UK's first Indian restaurant, the
One of the best known examples of British Indian restaurant cuisine is chicken tikka masala, which has also been called "a true British national dish."[250]
Ireland
Ireland's first Indian restaurant, the Indian Restaurant and Tea Rooms, opened in 1908 on Sackville Street, now O'Connell Street, in Dublin.[251] Today, Indian restaurants are commonplace in most Irish cities and towns. Non-Chinese Asians are the fastest growing ethnic group in Ireland.[252]
United States
A survey by The Washington Post in 2007 stated that more than 1,200 Indian food products had been introduced into the United States since 2000.[253] There are numerous Indian restaurants across the US, which vary based on regional culture and climate. North Indian and South Indian cuisines are especially well represented. Most Indian restaurants in the United States serve Americanized versions of North Indian food, which is generally less spicy than its Indian equivalents.
At sit-down restaurants with
See also
- Buddhist vegetarianism
- Diet in Hinduism
- Diet in Sikhism
- Jain vegetarianism
- Indian bread
- Indian Chinese cuisine
- Indian tea culture
- Indian bread
- List of Indian dishes
- List of Indian pickles
- List of snack foods from the Indian subcontinent
- List of Indian soups and stews
- List of plants used in Indian cuisine
- North East Indian cuisine
- South Asian pickle
- South Indian cuisine
- Street food of Chennai
- Street food of Mumbai
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Bibliography
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- Dalal, Tarla (2010). Faraal Foods for fasting days. Mumbai: Sanjay and Co. ISBN 9789380392028.
External links
- Indian cuisine at Curlie
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