Epstein–Barr virus
Human gammaherpesvirus 4 | |
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Virus classification | |
(unranked): | Virus |
Realm: | Duplodnaviria |
Kingdom: | Heunggongvirae
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Phylum: | Peploviricota |
Class: | Herviviricetes |
Order: | Herpesvirales |
Family: | Orthoherpesviridae
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Genus: | Lymphocryptovirus |
Species: | Human gammaherpesvirus 4
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Synonyms[1] | |
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The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), formally called Human gammaherpesvirus 4, is one of the nine known human herpesvirus types in the herpes family, and is one of the most common viruses in humans. EBV is a double-stranded DNA virus.[2] Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is the first identified
The virus causes
Infection with EBV occurs by the oral transfer of saliva[19] and genital secretions. Most people become infected with EBV and gain
EBV infects
Virology
Structure and genome
The
Tropism
The term
The viral three-part glycoprotein complexes of
Replication cycle
Entry to the cell
EBV can infect both B cells and epithelial cells. The mechanisms for entering these two cells are different.
To enter B cells, viral
To enter epithelial cells, viral protein BMRF-2 interacts with cellular β1
Once EBV enters the cell, the viral capsid dissolves and the viral genome is transported to the cell nucleus.[citation needed]
Lytic replication
The
For lytic replication to occur, the viral genome must be linear. The latent EBV genome is circular, so it must linearize in the process of lytic reactivation. During lytic replication, viral DNA polymerase is responsible for copying the viral genome. This contrasts with latency, in which host-cell DNA polymerase copies the viral genome.[25]
Lytic gene products are produced in three consecutive stages: immediate-early, early, and late.[25] Immediate-early lytic gene products act as
Latency
Unlike lytic replication, latency does not result in production of virions.[25]
Instead, the EBV genome circular DNA resides in the cell nucleus as an episome and is copied by cellular DNA polymerase.[25] It persists in the individual's memory B cells.[19][24] Epigenetic changes such as DNA methylation and cellular chromatin constituents, suppress the majority of the viral genes in latently infected cells.[33] Only a portion of EBV's genes are expressed, which support the latent state of the virus.[33][19][34]
Latent EBV expresses its genes in one of three patterns, known as latency programs. EBV can latently persist within
EBV can exhibit one of three latency programs: Latency I, Latency II, or Latency III. Each latency program leads to the production of a limited, distinct set of viral
Gene Expressed | EBNA-1 |
EBNA-2 |
EBNA-3 A |
EBNA-3 B |
EBNA-3 C |
EBNA-LP | LMP1 | LMP-2 A |
LMP-2 B |
EBER
|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Product | Protein | Protein | Protein | Protein | Protein | Protein | Protein | Protein | Protein | ncRNAs
|
Latency I | + | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | + |
Latency II | + | – | – | – | – | + | + | + | + | + |
Latency III | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + |
Also, a program is postulated in which all viral protein expression is shut off (Latency 0).[37]
Within B cells, all three latency programs are possible.[19] EBV latency within B cells usually progresses from Latency III to Latency II to Latency I. Each stage of latency uniquely influences B cell behavior.[19] Upon infecting a resting naïve B cell, EBV enters Latency III. The set of proteins and RNAs produced in Latency III transforms the B cell into a proliferating blast (also known as B cell activation).[19][25] Later, the virus restricts its gene expression and enters Latency II. The more limited set of proteins and RNAs produced in Latency II induces the B cell to differentiate into a memory B cell.[19][25] Finally, EBV restricts gene expression even further and enters Latency I. Expression of EBNA-1 allows the EBV genome to replicate when the memory B cell divides.[19][25]
Within epithelial cells, only Latency II is possible.[38]
In primary infection, EBV replicates in oropharyngeal epithelial cells and establishes Latency III, II, and I infections in B lymphocytes. EBV latent infection of B lymphocytes is necessary for virus persistence, subsequent replication in epithelial cells, and release of infectious virus into saliva. EBV Latency III and II infections of B lymphocytes, Latency II infection of oral epithelial cells, and Latency II infection of NK- or T-cell can result in malignancies, marked by uniform EBV genome presence and gene expression.[39]
Reactivation
Latent EBV in B cells can be reactivated to switch to lytic replication. This is known to happen in vivo, but what triggers it is not known precisely. In vitro, latent EBV in B cells can be reactivated by stimulating the B cell receptor, so it is likely reactivation in vivo takes place after latently infected B cells respond to unrelated infections.[25]
Transformation of B lymphocytes
When EBV infects B cells
EBNA-2, EBNA-3C, and LMP-1, are essential for transformation, whereas EBNA-LP and the EBERs are not.[41]
Following natural infection with EBV, the virus is thought to execute some or all of its repertoire of gene expression programs to establish a persistent infection. Given the initial absence of host
The latent programs reprogram and subvert infected B-lymphocytes to proliferate and bring infected cells to the sites at which the virus presumably persists. Eventually, when host immunity develops, the virus persists by turning off most (or possibly all) of its genes and only occasionally reactivates and produces progeny virions. A balance is eventually struck between occasional viral reactivation and host immune surveillance removing cells that activate viral gene expression. The manipulation of the human body's epigenetics by EBV can alter the genome of the cell to leave oncogenic phenotypes.[42] As a result, the modification by the EBV increases the hosts likelihood of developing EBV related cancer.[43] EBV related cancers are unique in that they are frequent to making epigenetic changes but are less likely to mutate.[44]
The site of persistence of EBV may be
Latent antigens
All EBV nuclear proteins are produced by alternative splicing of a transcript starting at either the Cp or Wp promoters at the left end of the genome (in the conventional nomenclature). The genes are ordered EBNA-LP/EBNA-2/EBNA-3A/EBNA-3B/EBNA-3C/EBNA-1 within the genome.
The initiation
Protein/genes
Protein/gene/antigen | Stage | Description |
---|---|---|
EBNA-1 | latent+lytic | EBNA-1 protein binds to a replication origin (oriP) within the viral genome and mediates replication and partitioning of the episome during division of the host cell. It is the only viral protein expressed during group I latency. |
EBNA-2 | latent+lytic | EBNA-2 is the main viral transactivator .
|
EBNA-3 | latent+lytic | These genes also bind the host RBP-Jκ protein. |
LMP-1 | latent | LMP-1 is a six-span transmembrane protein that is also essential for EBV-mediated growth transformation.
|
LMP-2 | latent | LMP-2A/LMP-2B are transmembrane proteins that act to block tyrosine kinase signaling. |
EBER
|
latent | EBER-1/EBER-2 are small nuclear RNAs, which bind to certain nucleoprotein particles, enabling binding to PKR (dsRNA-dependent serin/threonin protein kinase), thus inhibiting its function. EBERs are by far the most abundant EBV products transcribed in EBV-infected cells. They are commonly used as targets for the detection of EBV in histological tissues.[46] ER-particles also induce the production of IL-10, which enhances growth and inhibits cytotoxic T cells. |
v-snoRNA1 | latent | Epstein–Barr virus snoRNA1 is a box CD-snoRNA generated by the virus during latency. V-snoRNA1 may act as a miRNA-like precursor that is processed into 24 nucleotide sized RNA fragments that target the 3'UTR of viral DNA polymerase mRNA.[36] |
ebv-sisRNA | latent | Ebv-sisRNA-1 is a stable intronic sequence RNA generated during latency program III. After the EBERs, it is the third-most abundant small RNA produced by the virus during this program.[47]
|
miRNAs | latent | EBV microRNAs are encoded by two transcripts, one set in the BART gene and one set near the BHRF1 cluster. The three BHRF1 pri-miRNAS (generating four miRNAs) are expressed during type III latency, whereas the large cluster of BART miRNAs (up to 20 miRNAs) are expressed highly during type II latency and only modestly during type I and II latency.[48] The previous reference also gives an account of the known functions of these miRNAs. |
EBV-EA | lytic | early antigen |
EBV-MA | lytic | membrane antigen |
EBV-VCA | lytic | viral capsid antigen |
EBV-AN | lytic | alkaline nuclease[49] |
Subtypes of EBV
EBV can be divided into two major types, EBV type 1 and EBV type 2. These two subtypes have different
Detection
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2022) |
Epstein–Barr virus-encoded small RNAs (EBERs) are by far the most abundant EBV products transcribed in cells infected by EBV. They are commonly used as targets for the detection of EBV in histological tissues.[46]
Role in disease
- See also Infectious mononucleosis and the other diseases listed in this section
EBV causes infectious mononucleosis.
EBV has also been implicated in several other diseases, including
Specifically, EBV infected B cells have been shown to reside within the brain lesions of multiple sclerosis patients,[17] and a 2022 study of 10 million soldiers' historical blood samples showed that "Individuals who were not infected with the Epstein-Barr virus virtually never get multiple sclerosis. It's only after Epstein-Barr virus infection that the risk of multiple sclerosis jumps up by over 30 fold", and that only EBV of many infections had such a clear connection with the disease.[60]
Additional diseases that have been linked to EBV include
The Epstein–Barr virus has been implicated in disorders related to alpha-synuclein aggregation (e.g. Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, and multiple system atrophy).[66]
It has been found that
History
The Epstein–Barr virus was named after
Research
As a relatively complex virus, EBV is not yet fully understood. Laboratories around the world continue to study the virus and develop new ways to treat the diseases it causes. One popular way of studying EBV in vitro is to use bacterial artificial chromosomes.[75] Epstein–Barr virus can be maintained and manipulated in the laboratory in continual latency (a property shared with Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, another of the eight human herpesviruses). Although many viruses are assumed to have this property during infection of their natural hosts, there is not an easily managed system for studying this part of the viral lifecycle. Genomic studies of EBV have been able to explore lytic reactivation and regulation of the latent viral episome.[76]
Although under active research, an Epstein–Barr virus vaccine is not yet available. The development of an effective vaccine could prevent up to 200,000 cancers globally per year.[12][13] The absence of effective animal models is an obstacle to development of prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines against EBV.[24]
Like other
See also
- Epstein–Barr virus infection
- Epstein–Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative diseases
- James Corson Niederman, the physician who proved how the Epstein–Barr virus is transmitted in infectious mononucleosis
References
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- ^ Urgency and necessity of Epstein-Barr virus prophylactic vaccines. 2022. npj Vaccines. 7/1. L. Zhong, C. Krummenacher, W. Zhang, J. Hong, Q. Feng, Y. Chen, et al. doi: 10.1038/s41541-022-00587-6.
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- ^ a b c "Developing a vaccine for the Epstein–Barr virus could prevent up to 200,000 cancers globally say experts". Cancer Research UK (Press release). 24 March 2014. Archived from the original on 19 March 2017.
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Further reading
- Zhang S (3 March 2022). "The puzzling virus that infects almost everyone". The Atlantic.
External links
- "Transcriptome and epigenome of EBV". University of Pennsylvania. Archived from the original on 18 January 2019.