Ficus aurea
Florida strangler fig | |
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Florida strangler fig in Deering Park, Florida | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Rosids |
Order: | Rosales |
Family: | Moraceae |
Genus: | Ficus |
Subgenus: | F. subg. Urostigma |
Species: | F. aurea
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Binomial name | |
Ficus aurea Nutt. 1846, conserved name
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Synonyms[3] | |
Synonymy
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Ficus aurea, commonly known as the Florida strangler fig (or simply strangler fig), golden fig, or higuerón,[4] is a tree in the family Moraceae that is native to the U.S. state of Florida, the northern and western Caribbean, southern Mexico and Central America south to Panama.[5] The specific epithet aurea was applied by English botanist Thomas Nuttall who described the species in 1846.
Ficus aurea is a
Description
Ficus aurea is a tree which may reach heights of 30 m (98 ft).
Taxonomy
With about 750 species,
In their 1914 Flora of Jamaica, William Fawcett and Alfred Barton Rendle linked Sloane's illustration to the tree species that was then known as Ficus suffocans, a name that had been assigned to it in August Grisebach's Flora of the British West Indian Islands.[14] Gordon DeWolf agreed with their conclusion and used the name F. maxima for that species in the 1960 Flora of Panama.[15] Since this use has become widespread, Berg proposed that the name Ficus maxima be conserved in the way DeWolf had used it,[11] a proposal that was accepted by the nomenclatural committee.[2]
Reassigning the name Ficus maxima did not leave F. aurea as the oldest name for this species, as German naturalist Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link had described Ficus ciliolosa in 1822. Berg concluded that the species Link described was actually F. aurea, and since Link's description predated Nuttall's by 24 years, priority should have been given to the name F. ciliolosa. Since the former name was widely used and the name F. ciliolosa had not been, Berg proposed that the name F. aurea be conserved.[11] In response to this, the nomenclatural committee ruled that rather than conserving F. aurea, that it would be better to reject F. ciliolosa. Conserving F. aurea would mean that precedence would be given to that name over all others. By simply rejecting F. ciliolosa, the committee left open the possibility that the name F. aurea could be supplanted by another older name, if one were to be discovered.[2]
Synonyms
In 1920, American botanist Paul C. Standley described three new species based on collections from Panama and Costa Rica—Ficus tuerckheimii, F. isophlebia and F. jimenezii.[16] DeWolf concluded that they were all the same species,[15] and Berg synonymised them with F. aurea.[5] These names have been used widely for Mexican and Central American populations, and continue to be used by some authors. Berg suspected that Ficus rzedowskiana Carvajal and Cuevas-Figueroa may also belong to this species, but he had not examined the original material upon which this species was based.[5]
Berg considered F. aurea to be a species with at least four morphs. "None of the morphs", he wrote, "can be related to certain habitats or altitudes."[5] Thirty years earlier, William Burger had come to a very different conclusion with respect to Ficus tuerckheimii, F. isophlebia and F. jimenezii—he rejected DeWolf's synonymisation of these three species as based on incomplete evidence. Burger noted that the three taxa occupied different habitats which could be separated in terms of rainfall and elevation.[17]
Reproduction and growth
Figs have an obligate mutualism with fig wasps, (Agaonidae); figs are only pollinated by these wasps, and they can only reproduce in fig flowers. Generally, each fig species depends on a single species of wasp for pollination. The wasps are similarly dependent on their fig species in order to reproduce. Ficus aurea is pollinated by Pegoscapus mexicanus (Ashmead).[18]
Figs have complicated
Phenology
Figs flower and fruit asynchronously.[7] Flowering and fruiting is staggered throughout the population. This fact is important for fig wasps—female wasps need to find a syconium in which to lay their eggs within a few days of emergence, something that would not be possible if all the trees in a population flowered and fruited at the same time. This also makes figs important food resources for frugivores (animals that feed nearly exclusively on fruit); figs are one of the few fruit available at times of the year when fruit are scarce.
Although figs flower asynchronously as a population, in most species flowering is synchronised within an individual. Newly emerged female wasps must move away from their natal tree in order to find figs in which to lay their eggs. This is to the advantage of the fig, since it prevents self-pollination.[19] In Florida, individual F. aurea trees flower and fruit asynchronously.[7] Within-tree asynchrony in flowering is likely to raise the probability of self-pollination, but it may be an adaptation that allows the species to maintain an adequate population of wasps at low population densities or in strongly seasonal climates.[7]
Flowering phenology in Ficus aurea | ||
Phase[20] | Description[20] | Duration in F. aurea[20] |
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A (pre-female) | Immature flowers | 2 days to >9 months |
B (female) | Female flowers are receptive to pollination; female wasps lay eggs and pollinate flowers | 1 day to 3 weeks |
C (interfloral) | Fig seeds and wasp larvae develop | 4 to 7 weeks |
D (male) | Male flowers mature; wasps emerge, mate and female wasps disperse | 1 to 2 days |
E (post-floral) | Fruits ripen | 1 to 5 days |
Flowering phenology in Ficus has been characterised into five phases. In most figs, phase A is followed almost immediately by phase B. However, in F. aurea immature inflorescences can remain dormant for more than nine months.[7]
Growth
Ficus aurea is a fast-growing tree.
Distribution
Ficus aurea ranges from Florida, across the northern Caribbean to Mexico, and south across Central America. It is present in central and southern Florida and the
Ficus aurea is found in central and southern Florida as far north as Volusia County;[29] it is one of only two native fig species in Florida.[30] The species is present in a range of south Florida ecosystems, including coastal hardwood hammocks, cabbage palm hammocks,
Ecology
Ficus aurea is a strangler fig—it tends to establish on a host tree which it gradually encircles and "strangles", eventually taking the place of that tree in the forest canopy. While this makes F. aurea an agent in the mortality of other trees, there is little to indicate that its choice of hosts is species specific. However, in
Figs are sometimes considered to be potential
The interaction between figs and
The invertebrates within F. aurea syconia in southern Florida include a pollinating wasp, P. mexicanus, up to eight or more species of non-pollinating wasps, a plant-parasitic nematode transported by the pollinator, mites, and a predatory rove beetle whose adults and larvae eat fig wasps.[40] Nematodes: Schistonchus aureus (Aphelenchoididae) is a plant-parasitic nematode associated with the pollinator Pegoscapus mexicanus and syconia of F. aurea.[41] Mites: belonging to the family Tarsonemidae (Acarina) have been recognized in the syconia of F. aurea and F. citrifolia, but they have not been identified even to genus, and their behavior is undescribed.[40] Rove beetles: Charoxus spinifer is a rove beetle (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) whose adults enter late-stage syconia of F. aurea and F. citrifolia.[42] Adults eat fig wasps; larvae develop within the syconia and prey on fig wasps, then pupate in the ground.[43]
As a large tree, F. aurea can be an important host for epiphytes. In Costa Rican cloud forests, where F. aurea is "the most conspicuous component" of intact forest,[28] trees in forest patches supported richer communities of epiphytic bryophytes, while isolated trees supported greater lichen cover.[28]
Florida International University ecologist Suzanne Koptur reported the presence of extrafloral nectaries on F. aurea figs in the Florida Everglades.[44] Extrafloral nectaries are structures which produce nectar but are not associated with flowers. They are usually interpreted as defensive structure and are often produced in response to attack by insect herbivores.[45] They attract insects, primarily ants, which defend the nectaries, thus protecting the plant against herbivores.[46]
Uses
Ficus aurea, amongst other related Ficus species, has been a source of bark for preparing amate, the bark paper used for codices in the Mesoamerican civilizations. The oldest example dates back to 75 CE and was found in a shaft tomb culture site in Huitzilapa, Jalisco in Mexico.[47][48]
The fruit of Ficus aurea is edible and was used for food by the Native Americans and early settlers in Florida; it is still eaten occasionally as a backyard source of native fruit. The latex was used to make a chewing gum, and aerial roots may have been used to make lashings, arrows, bowstrings and fishing lines. The fruit was used to make a rose-coloured dye.[49] F. aurea was also used in traditional medicine in The Bahamas[50] and Florida.[49] Allison Adonizio and colleagues screened F. aurea for anti-quorum sensing activity (as a possible means of anti-bacterial action), but found no such activity.[51]
Individual F. aurea trees are common on dairy farms in La Cruz, Cañitas and
Ficus aurea is used as an
References
- . Retrieved 2 October 2022.
- ^ JSTOR 25065389.
- ^ "The Plant List".
- ^ S2CID 23022677.
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- ^ Flora de Nicaragua database. Tropicos. (in Spanish) Retrieved on 2008-07-02
- ^ JSTOR 2445195.
- ^ a b c Gilman, Edward F.; Watson, Dennis G. (December 2006). "Ficus aurea: Strangler Fig". Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (ENH409). Retrieved 2008-06-10.
- JSTOR 4135449.
- ^ Rønsted, N.; Weiblen, G. D.; Clement, W. L.; Zerega, N. J. C.; Savolainen, V. (2008). "Reconstructing the phylogeny of figs (Ficus, Moraceae) to reveal the history of the fig pollination mutualism" (PDF). Symbiosis. 45 (1–3): 45–56.
- ^ JSTOR 3647421.
- ISBN 978-0-304-52257-6.
- ^ Sloane, Hans (1725). A voyage to the islands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, S. Christophers and Jamaica. B.M.
- ^ Grisebach, August (1859). Flora of the British West Indian Islands. Vol. 1. London: L. Reeve & Co. Retrieved 2008-07-02.
- ^ JSTOR 2394704.
- ^ Standley, Paul C. (1920). "The Mexican and Central American Species of Ficus". Contributions from the United States National Herbarium. 20 (1): 1–35.
- JSTOR 2395057.
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- ^ JSTOR 2388922.
- ^ a b Broschat, Timothy K.; Alan W. Meerow; Robert J. Black (February 2007). "Enviroscaping to Conserve Energy: Trees for South Florida". Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (Circular EES-42). Retrieved 2008-06-10.
- JSTOR 2444534.
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- ^ S2CID 82099604.
- ^ Ficus aurea Nutt. Flora Mesoamericana: Lista Anotada. (in Spanish) Retrieved on 2008-07-02
- ^ PMID 21708624.
- ^ JSTOR 3243312.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ "Ficus aurea: Distribution Map". Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants. Institute for Systematic Botany, University of South Florid. Retrieved 2008-06-10.
- ^ JSTOR 2400063.
- ^ Ken Rutchey; et al. (2006). "Vegetation Classification for South Florida Natural Areas". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 2008-05-12. Retrieved 2008-06-10. Open-File Report 2006-1240.
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- S2CID 22566572. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2011-10-04.
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- ^ JSTOR 3495478.
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- ^ Frank, J. H.; Thomas, M. C. (1997). "A new species of Charoxus (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) from native figs (Ficus spp.) in Florida". Journal of the New York Entomological Society. 104: 70–78.
- S2CID 84010406.
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- ^ Rosaura Citlalli López Binnqüist (2003). The endurance of Mexican amate paper: Exploring additional dimensions to the sustainable development concept (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands. Docket 9036519004. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
- ^ a b Allen, Ginger M.; Bond, Michael D.; Main, Martin B. (December 2002). "50 Common Native Plants Important In Florida's Ethnobotanical History". Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (Circular 1439). Archived from the original on 2012-04-26. Retrieved 2008-06-10.
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External links
- Interactive Distribution Map for Ficus aurea Archived 2012-06-07 at the Wayback Machine