Francisco de Paula Santander
This article needs additional citations for verification. (August 2020) |
Francisco de Paula Santander | ||
---|---|---|
Vice President José Ignacio de Márquez | | |
Preceded by | Office Created | |
Succeeded by | José Ignacio de Márquez | |
5th Vice President of the Gran Colombia | ||
In office November 3, 1821 – September 19, 1827 | ||
President | Simón Bolívar | |
Preceded by | José María del Castillo | |
Succeeded by | Domingo Caycedo (1830) | |
Personal details | ||
Born | Francisco José de Paula Santander y Omaña 2 April 1792 Villa del Rosario, Tunja Province, Viceroyalty of New Granada | |
Died | 6 March 1840 Santa Fe de Bogotá, Cundinamarca, Republic of New Granada | (aged 47)|
Nationality | Neogranadine | |
Political party | Federalist | |
Spouse | Sixta Pontón | |
Children | Francisco de Paula Jesús Bartolomé, Clementina Santander y Pontón, Sixta Tulia Santander y Pontón | |
Alma mater | Colegio Mayor de San Bartolomé Universidad santo Tomás | |
Awards | Cross of Boyacá Order of the Liberator Medal of the Liberators of Cundinamarca | |
Signature | ||
Military service | ||
Allegiance |
United Provinces of New Granada 1818-1819 Gran Colombia 1819 | |
Branch/service | New Granadan Army (1810-1816) Liberator Army of New Granada and Venezuela (1816-1819) Gran Colombian Army (1819) | |
Years of service | 1810-1819 | |
Rank | General de Division | |
Battles/wars |
| |
Francisco José de Paula Santander y Omaña (April 2, 1792 – May 6, 1840) was a Colombian military and political leader who served as Vice-President of Gran Colombia between 1819 and 1826, and was later elected by Congress as the President of the Republic of New Granada between 1832 and 1837. Santander played a pivotal role in the Colombian War of Independence being one of the main leaders of the Patriot forces and helped lead the Patriot Army alongside Simon Bolivar to victory. He's often credited with creating the legal foundations for democracy in Colombia, as well as creating the country's first system of public education. For these reasons he is considered a National Hero in Colombia and has thus commonly been known as "The Man of the Laws" ("El Hombre de las Leyes") as well as the "Organizer of Victory" ("El Organizador de la Victoria").[1]
Francisco de Paula Santander was born into a wealthy criollo family in Villa del Rosario, in the Viceroyalty of New Granada and spent most of his formative years there. In 1805 he left his home to continue his education in the Viceregal capital of Santa Fe de Bogotá, while finishing his studies on July 20, 1810 he joined in the revolutionary fervor that would be movement for New Granadan Independence. At the age of 18 Santander abandoned his studies to begin his military career fighting for the Patriot cause against the Royalists initially with the Centralists but switched sides and became an officer in the army of the Federalist United Provinces of New Granada.
In 1813 he would be wounded and captured during the civil war between the Federalists and the Centralists, but was released to serve under Manuel del Castillo y Rada and Simon Bolivar in the defense of the Cucuta Valley from the Royalists. For the next 3 years Santander defended the valley from Royalist Incursion until he was defeated at the Battle of Cachiri during the Spanish Reconquest of New Granada. With the collapse of the first republic, he fled to the Casanare Province and joined forces with Venezuelan Patriot forces there first under the command of Jose Antonio Paez, and then joined Bolivar's forces in Guayana in 1817. Under the command of Bolivar during the 1819 Campaign to Liberate New Granada, Santander led his troops valiantly at the battles of Paya, Gameza, Vargas Swamp, and at Boyaca liberating his homeland from Spanish Rule.
With the creation of Gran Colombia in December of 1819, Santander was initially chosen as Vice-President of Cundinamarca, in 1821 at the congress of Cucuta he was elected as Vice-President of Gran Colombia with Bolivar as President. For the next 6 years, with Bolivar away on campaign, Santander became acting president of the new nation, using his administrative skills to create the foundations for the new republic. In 1827 political differences between him and Bolivar led to a rupture in their relationship, culminating in 1828 when Bolivar accused of him of having masterminded a plot to assassinate him. While no evidence was ever found to corroborate this, Santander was sentenced to the death however this punishment was changed and Santander was instead stripped of his titles and positions and sent into exile where he would spend next 4 years in Europe and in the United States. After the dissolution of Gran Colombia, in 1832 the newly established congress of the Republic of New Granada elected him as President where he served his term from 1832 to 1837. After the end of his presidency he was elected as a representative for Bogotá in the chamber of representatives, however his health began to rapidly decline resulting in his death on May 6 1840.
Biography
Santander was born in Villa del Rosario, in the Tunja Province of the Viceroyalty of New Granada not far from Cúcuta, on April 2, 1792. 11 days later on April 13 he was baptized at the Santa Ana chapel.[2] His parents were Juan Agustín Santander Colmenares who was governor of the rural town of San Faustino de los Ríos as well as a cocoa and coffee plant grower, his mother; Manuela Antonia de Omaña Rodríguez. Both were descendants of aristocratic Spanish families who had settled in the New Kingdom of Granada. The couple had two children before Santander, a boy Pedro José and a girl Josefa Teresa who died in their infancy.[3] 2 years after Santander was born the couple had another girl Josefa Dolores.[4] Santander grew up in a family that was both socially and economically privileged and that had a large influence in the region where he was born through the ownership of various haciendas and properties.[5]
He received his primary education in a private school in Villa del Rosario, and upon learning how to read became a voracious reader combing through the various books his father's library possessed. He was also taught Latin by a local clergyman. Even at a young age Santander noticed how there was considerable lack of schools for public education as well as trained teachers in the New Kingdom of Granada. Discrimination based on social class often meant that the majority of the population was excluded from a getting even a primary education, and even those who did receive one were taught a very basic curriculum that was often a victim of censorship by colonial authorities. This left a lasting impact on Santander who later in life as President would implement a policy of promoting creating public schools with trained teachers operated by the government for the general population.
As Santander's family was an aristocratic one, it was common for the family to send their children to receive further education in the viceregal capital, Santa Fé. In the capital there were essentially 2 career paths offered by higher education institutions, those being Law or Religion. Juan Agustin Santander then asked his brother-in-law ,the priest Nicolás Mauricio de Omaña y Rodriguez, to try to get the young Francisco de Paula a scholarship at the Colegio de San Bartolomé. Santander now 13, was sent by his father Juan Agustin to Santa Fe in 1805 and enrolled in the Colegio Mayor y Seminario de San Bartolomé.
After arriving in Santa Fe, the young Francisco de Paula lived in the Colegio de San Bartolomé where his maternal uncle lived at that time, the priest Nicolás Mauricio de Omaña, who occupied the position of vice-rector of that establishment. Nicolás Mauricio de Omaña was a well known figure in the city, and was friends with many of the enlightened and cultured criollos of Santa Fe. His teachings had a large influence over the young Santander who wrote in his memoirs that his uncle had taught him " To know the justice, convenience and need for these countries to shake Spanish domination." This sentiment was shared by many of the professors at the Colegio de San Bartolomé who would also play a big role in the independence movement. By 1808, Santander had received his secondary education and began to study law at the University of Santo Tomás. The education he received at the Colegio de San Bartolomé left a big impact on Santander. The legal doctrines extracted from the Roman, Spanish and Indian laws shaped his thinking.[6] This helped him to later organize Colombia with exemplary method and order.
Military career
Upon arriving in the province the situation was critical as the Casanare Province, while one of the few regions not under full Spanish control, was a "miserable province, with no resources and no capable men."[31][32] The New Granadan Patriot forces in the province were in complete chaos upon his arrival due to infighting and lack of resources especially between the 2 most senior officers, Nonato Perez and Antonio Arredondo, who had been in the province prior to Santander's arrival.[33][31] Santander was able to eventually impose his authority over the two as "his presence inspired confidence, as well as his emphasis in unity in order to solve the situation" his officers began the arduous task of recruiting and training this new army.[34] He also established a provisional government in the name of the previous United Provinces of New Granada, with it being subservient to the previous constitution of 1815, with Casanare as its sole province and Pore as the provisional capital of New Granada and, while at the same time formally establishing its alliance with Venezuela and recognizing Simon Bolívaras captain-general of both the New Granadan and Venezuelan armies on December 18, 1818.[35][36]
During his time as military commander in the Llanos, Santander stressed maintaining discipline over this new army and wrote a large correspondence of orders to his officers with instructions on organizing and training this force. Over the coming months, Santander along with his officers such as the young sargeant major Joaquin Paris as well lieutenant colonel Antonio Obando, were able to build a respectable force of around 1,200 men divided in 2 infantry battalions the Cazadores Constantes Battalion and the First Line Battalion of New Granada as well as a cavalry contingent recruited from the local population. [37] These efforts did not go unnoticed however, as Spanish intelligence informed Morillo of Santander's presence in Casanare, Morillo informed the Viceroy of New Granada Juan de Samano as well as the commander of III Division of the Royalist Army tasked with the protection of that kingdom, Colonel Jose Maria Barreiro of Santander's presence. In early 1819 Morillo ordered Barreiro to invade Casanare as soon as possible to destroy the possible insurgent threat.
Barreiro crossed the eastern andes with an army of around 1,800 troops in late March 1819 and invaded the province, the Royalist army took the deserted town of Pore on April 9. [38] Santander's strategy during this campaign would be one of evasion as he withdraw deeper into the Llanos in order to stretch Barreiro's supply line as well as exhaust his troops who were not accustomed to the harsh climate of the Llanos.[39] This strategy would succeed as the campaign became harsh on the royalist troops who lacked sufficient supplies for a further penetration into the vast Llanos, these troops were also subject to ambushes by mobile Patriot troops, and with the rain season only one month way Barreiro decided to withdraw across the andes back into the central New Granada, the withdrawal was complicated further by Santander who ordered a small counteroffensive against the Royalists which further demoralized Barreiro's men.[40] [41]On April 17 Barreiro's army eventually withdrew back to central New Granada and garrisoned the army in Tunja to wait out the winter rain season, the failure of this campaign was further confirmed when Santander ordered colonel Obando to attack the garrison at La Salina which Barreiro had left behind to cover his retreat with the attack being a victory for the patriots resulting in the capture of the garrison. News of successful defense of the province was sent to Bolívarwith Santander stating in his letter dated April 21.
"Barreiro, general commander of this expedition, has seen with his own eyes that it is not with three or four thousand men that Casanare is conquered, and that it is not with terror that he can erase the feelings of patriotism that her own troops have for freedom. of their homeland"[42][43]
In late May, Santander notified Bolívarof his final preparations and the favorability of the local population's support for a liberation campaign.[44] Bolívarupon receiving these reports marched his army from the Apure region in Venezuela on May 27, 1819. On June 4 Bolivar's army crossed the Arauca river and reached town of Tame on June 12, where he met with Santander's forces.[45] At Tame, Bolívarogranized the army as well as informed his officers of the military strategy for the campaign. The combined New Granadan and Venezuelan army of around 2,500 troops was named the Liberator Army of New Granada and Venezuela comprised two divisions, with Bolívaras commander-in-chief, General Soublette as chief-of-staff , Santander as commander of the vanguard division and General José Antonio Anzoátegui commander of the rearguard division.[46][47] The army left Tame and marched towards Pore in the direction of the eastern andes mountain range. The campaign was conducted during the winter rain season which flooded the Llanos and made marching extremely difficult for the army.
As his division was at the head of the army, Santander often made first contact with Royalist forces such as when he came upon a Royalist garrison at Paya on June 27, where he ordered his troops to attack the Royalist garrison in order to clear the way so that the army could continue its march to the Paramo de Pisba. Having forced the Spanish to withdraw the Patriot Forces continued onward, however that same day June 27 Bolivar, one-days march behind, sent a letter informing Santander of the exhaustion of the Venezuelan troops who were also skeptical of the success of the campaign. Bolívarconsidered calling the campaign off, however Santander responded by stating he preferred "a certain death in the planned operation against the enemy then retreating back to the llanos" this sentiment was also expressed by his fellow officers as well as General Anzoátegui.[48][49] The determination demonstrated by Santander and his officers inspired confidence in Bolívarand the campaign continued.
From July 1 to the 6th the army crossed the Andes Mountains at the Paramo de Pisba where it endured extremely harsh conditions and had its limits tested as it endured cold temperatures and constant rain storms with the little uniforms that they had on which caused many to perish. After reaching the town of Socha in the Tunja Province on July 6, the army was in a sorry state as it lost almost all of its horses, cattle, as well a number of men and equipment with Santander describing that the "the army was a dying body."[50][51] Over the next few days Santander's Vanguard division was deployed to take the surrounding towns of Corrales and Gameza, there they would encounter the forces of Barreiro's royalist army and entered into combat on July 10 and July 11.
At the battle of Gameza on July 11, Santander himself would be lightly wounded as a Royalist musketball grazed his neck with captain Paris urgently coming to his side to review his wound.[52] This battle would also result in the death of the commander of his Cazadores infantry Battalion, Colonel Antonio Arredondo, who would be replaced by Joaquin Paris now promoted to Lieutenant Colonel. On July 25 he participated in the Battle of Vargas Swamp leading his Vanguard Division up Picacho Hill, the fight was difficult as they were pushed back multiple times by Spanish forces.[53] After 5 hours of grueling combat Santander alongside Colonel James Rooke of the British Legion led a desperate bayonet charge that finally dislodged the Spanish off the hill, this was done as Colonel Juan Jose Rondon led his lancers in an uphill charge on Cangrejo Hill resulting in a hardfought Patriot victory. Of the battle Santander later stated that:
"The glory of Vargas belongs to Colonel Rondon and Lieutenant Colonel Carvajal, both from the plains of Venezuela. To no one else was it granted but to them, on that glorious day those renown brave men were given honorable mention in the army bulletin"[54]
After the victory at Vargas Swamp, the Patriot Army tricked the Royalists by conducting a feint march back to Venezuela while on that same night they conducted a countermarch allowing them capture the important city of Tunja behind the backs of the Royalists who now had their main line of communication with the capital Santa Fe, severed, Santander described this action stating "It is without dispute what sealed the success of our campaign".[55] Barreiro hurriedly marched towards Tunja but informed of its capture, took the alternate route around the city through Motavita during a night march in the rain in order to gain the lead on the race to the capital. On August 7 at 9am Bolívarinformed by his spies of Barreiro's secret march, he observed the Royalist army march towards the Boyaca Bridge, he then ordered Santander and Anzoátegui to intercept the Royalists before they could cross the bridge.[56] At the Battle of Boyacá, Santander would play a pivotal role as his men spotted the Royalist Vanguard force at the nearby Casa de Teja guarding the bridge as they waited for the bulk of the Royalist Army to arrive.[57] The two forces spotted each other and exchanged fire with the Royalists charging after the Patriots thinking they were a small observation force. Santander marching down the main road Camino Real with the rest of the patriot vanguard upon seeing this unfold ordered Lieutenant Colonel Joaquín París commander of "Cazadores" Battalion to attack the Royalist forces at the Casa de Teja. The Cazadores forced the Royalists to fall back towards the bridge, with them eventually being forced across the other side as the two forces faced each other. Santander then ordered Colonel Antonio Bejar to take some forces down the river and cross it in order to attack the Spanish vanguard from the rear. While this was happening Anzoátegui marching behind Santander, spotted the main bulk of Royalist Army and immediately attacked causing panic and decimating the main force. When Bejar's forces managed to ford the river and were approaching the rear of the Royalist vanguard force the two forces engaged in battle. When this occurred Santander led a bayonet charge across the bridge with a company from the First Line Battalion of New Granada to deliver the final blow ending the battle around 4:30pm as the Patriot Army destroyed the Royalist Army, culminating the campaign.[58] [59]
Santander along with the rest of the Patriot army entered triumphantly into Bogota on August 10, the Viceroy and the rest of the Spanish government had fled the city after receiving new of the Royalist defeat at the Boyaca Bridge. As a result of his actions during these battles, 11 days after the battle he was promoted to
Santander's Presidency
In October 1821, after the
First administration
Since General
During his first administration, and in an effort to stabilize the new nation, Santander ordered the execution of most of the Spanish officers in captivity, among them General José María Barreirio. General Bolívar, in a letter sent to Santander from Pamplona, expressed his sadness and disapproval.[61]
Political differences
Initially, Santander and Bolívar were considered close friends and allies, but gradually political and ideological differences emerged. It is considered by modern scholars that Santander believed in the sanctity of constitutional government and in the rule of law, perhaps to a greater degree than Bolívar, who would have allegedly thought that those concerns were secondary to what he perceived as the actual needs and solutions that historical circumstances demanded, and thus could be subject to flexibility [citation needed].
In 1826, when the first Venezuelan uprising occurred, Santander and Bolívar came to disagree about how to handle the situation. Santander believed that the rebels, led by José Antonio Páez and federalist sympathizers, should be punished or at least made to openly submit to the established constitutional order. When Bolívar, who had returned from Peru and reassumed his executive powers, arranged for an amnesty and placed Páez as supreme military chief of the department of Venezuela, Santander felt that the central government's authority and the rule of law were being undermined by the constitutional President himself in a personalist manner.
Santander also disagreed with Bolívar's attempt to promote a reform of the 1821 constitution before it was legally permitted (the constitution stated that ten years had to go by), and especially with Bolívar's attempted nationwide implementation of the constitution that he had previously drafted for Bolivia, which among other provisions called for a lifelong presidency with the ability to select a direct successor. In Santander's opinion, this could place the country dangerously close to monarchism [citation needed].
In 1828, growing internal conflicts continued. Santander was elected as one of the delegates to the
These events eventually led Bolívar to declare himself dictator in August of that year, while the office of the vice president was abolished.
Santander and his political sympathizers felt that this act betrayed liberalism and the ideology of the Age of Enlightenment, some even comparing Bolívar to Napoleon or Julius Caesar.
On September 25, 1828, Bolívar escaped an assassination attempt. Among those blamed was Santander who, in a quick military trial, was originally sentenced to die without specific proof of his participation in the event, but President Bolívar pardoned him, commuted his sentence and ordered his exile.[62]
Even today, the details are not totally clear and the evidence appears to be inconclusive. Some historians consider that Santander knew about the possibility of an assassination attempt and initially opposed it, but eventually allowed it to happen without his direct participation. This position was eventually assumed by Santander himself later in his life. Others consider that Santander may have been involved in the plan from the beginning as it would benefit him politically, though no direct proof of his role has been found.
Return from Exile
After Bolívar died and Gran Colombia broke up, Santander returned from exile in 1832 and served as President of the Republic of New Granada from 1832 to 1836. Santander had spent a great deal of time in Europe absorbing how the ideas of the Enlightenment were affecting European politics in the early 19th century. As his diary shows, Santander was an assiduous art and music lover, and attended the opera almost every evening. In 1830, he was in Brussels, where he saw various performances of La muette de Portici, whose liberal political implications caused a riot that sparked the Belgian Revolution, although he was in Berlin in August 25 when the riots occurred.[63] When he returned, these concepts influenced his decisions to a great extent.[citation needed]
Second Administration
In 1832, Santander was elected by Congress as President for a second term.[64] This administration was quite different from the first, in that he moved away from free trade and stressed an alternate form of protectionism. He first reverted most of his original changes from Bolívar's undoing, although some were devalued somewhat. He did not close New Granada to international trade, but rather sought safety for New Granada under the auspices of industrialized nations, instead of discouraging trade with them. He set up economic contacts in eleven United States cities, hoped that by creating strong ties with them, he would promote industrial development in New Granada while avoiding the use of high tariffs, which he inherently disliked.
During his second administration, just like he did during his first administration, he ordered the execution of most of the rest of the Spanish officers still in captivity, who had been saved by Bolivar in the first round of Santander's murderous pursuit; among them General José Sardá. They were executed in Bogotá, on July 23, 1833, in front of Santander himself.[65]
Later years
After his term expired, he remained an important and influential political figure. He died in 1840 and was eventually considered one of the original ideological founders of the Colombian Liberal Party, which would be formally established some eight years later.
Legacy
Santander’s legacy has long been controversial, although his administrative importance in the vice-presidency of Gran Colombia has always been recognized, as well as his military leadership alongside Bolivar and Azoategui during the Liberation campaign. His reputation has been too heavily overshadowed by that of Bolívar, and the dark patches on, such as the execution of prisoners after Boyacá. Nor after death did he become an object of veneration in his own country.[66] Colombian political divisions did not permit that, as he was often vilified by ultra hard line Conservatives, such as former President Laureano Gomez, due to his opposition to the church and their influence over public education.[67]
However over time he has been rehabilitated as the division between the nation’s two founding fathers has helped prevent party-political cults of Bolívar. In Colombia, Bolívar stands as the Liberator of the nation while Santander as the Lawgiver, the man who built the foundations for democracy in Colombia Bolívar was “the genius of the activity, Santander was the genius of order”, in this sense they were, more than an opposition, a complement. And the It is because the amorphous must manifest itself as order, it must acquire texture, delimiting lines.
References
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- ^ Riaño, Camilo (1969) La Campaña Libertadora de 1819 [Liberation Campaign of 1819]. Bogotá: Ediitorial Andes. p. 28.
- ^ Santander, Francisco de Paula (1837). Apuntamientos para las memorias sobre Colombia i la Nueva Granada (1st ed.). Bogotá: Imprenta de Lleras. p. 8.
- ^ a b Riaño, Camilo (1969) La Campaña Libertadora de 1819 [Liberation Campaign of 1819]. Bogotá: Ediitorial Andes. p. 29-30.
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- ^ Santander, Francisco de Paula (1838). Apuntamientos para las memorias sobre Colombia i la Nueva Granada (1st ed.). Bogotá: L.M. Lleras. p. 26.
- ^ Riaño, Camilo (1969) La Campaña Libertadora de 1819 [Liberation Campaign of 1819]. Bogotá: Ediitorial Andes. p.31-32.
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- ^ Santander, Francisco de Paula (1838). Apuntamientos para las memorias sobre Colombia i la Nueva Granada. Bogotá: L. M. Lleras: L. M. Lleras. p. 27.
- ^ Riaño, Camilo (1969) La Campaña Libertadora de 1819 [Liberation Campaign of 1819]. Bogotá: Ediitorial Andes. p. 56.
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- ^ ""No es con tres ni cuatro mil hombres que se conquista el Casanare" Hace 200 años: la defensa de la Provincia de Casanare por Francisco de Paula Santander". museonacional.gov.co. Retrieved 2024-04-04.
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- ^ Riaño, Camilo (1969) La Campaña Libertadora de 1819 [Liberation Campaign of 1819]. Bogotá: Editorial Andes.p. 121-122.
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- ^ Santander, Francisco de Paula (1838). Apuntamientos para las memorias sobre Colombia i la Nueva Granada. Bogotá: L. M. Lleras: p. 32
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- ^ Santander, Francisco de Paula (1838). Apuntamientos para las memorias sobre Colombia i la Nueva Granada. Bogotá: L. M. Lleras: L. M. Lleras. p. 34
- ^ Santander, Francisco de Paula (1820). El General Simón Bolívar en la Campaña de la Nueva Granada de 1819. Bogotá: Imprenta del C. B. E. p. 10.
- ^ Riaño, Camilo (1969) La Campaña Libertadora de 1819 [Liberation Campaign of 1819]. Bogotá: Editorial Andes. p. 263.
- ^ a b Arismendi Posada, Ignacio; Gobernantes Colombianos; trans. Colombian Presidents; Interprint Editors Ltd.; Italgraf; Segunda Edición; Page 22; Bogotá, Colombia; 1983
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- ^ Riaño, Camilo (1969) La Campaña Libertadora de 1819 [Liberation Campaign of 1819]. Bogotá: Editorial Andes. p.278.
- ^ Riaño, Camilo (1969) La Campaña Libertadora de 1819 [Liberation Campaign of 1819]. Bogotá: Ediitorial Andes. p. 298.
- ^ a b Arismendi Posada, Ignacio; Gobernantes Colombianos; trans. Colombian Presidents; Interprint Editors Ltd.; Italgraf; Segunda Edición; Page 23; Bogotá, Colombia; 1983
- ^ Arismendi Posada, Ignacio; Gobernantes Colombianos; trans. Colombian Presidents; Interprint Editors Ltd.; Italgraf; Segunda Edición; Page 27; Bogotá, Colombia; 1983
- ^ "Santander en Europa 1829-1832". repositorio.unal.edu.co. Retrieved 2021-08-26.
- ^ Arismendi Posada, Ignacio; Gobernantes Colombianos; trans. Colombian Presidents; Interprint Editors Ltd.; Italgraf; Segunda Edición; Page 25; Bogotá, Colombia; 1983
- ^ Arismendi Posada, Ignacio; Gobernantes Colombianos; trans. Colombian Presidents; Interprint Editors Ltd.; Italgraf; Segunda Edición; Page 24; Bogotá, Colombia; 1983
- ISSN 0018-2168.
- ^ Bushnell, David (2006). "What is the Problem with Santander?" (PDF). Revista de Estudios Colombianos (29): 12 – via Asociación de Colombianistas.
External links
- Bushnell, David (1970). The Santander Regime in Gran Colombia. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. OCLC 258393.
- Huck, E. R. (1972). Economic Experimentation in a Newly Independent Nation: Colombia under Francisco de Paula Santander, 1821–1840. The Americas, 29, 2, 167-184.
- Francisco de Paula Santander - Google Pages Archived 2008-12-20 at the Wayback Machine