George Wallace
George Wallace | |
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Governor of Alabama | |
In office January 17, 1983 – January 19, 1987 | |
Lieutenant | Bill Baxley |
Preceded by | Fob James |
Succeeded by | H. Guy Hunt |
In office January 18, 1971 – January 15, 1979[a] | |
Lieutenant | Jere Beasley |
Preceded by | Albert Brewer |
Succeeded by | Fob James |
In office January 14, 1963 – January 16, 1967 | |
Lieutenant | James Allen |
Preceded by | John Patterson |
Succeeded by | Lurleen Wallace |
First Gentleman of Alabama | |
In role January 16, 1967 – May 7, 1968 | |
Governor | Lurleen Wallace |
Preceded by | Lurleen Wallace (as First Lady) |
Succeeded by | Martha Farmer Brewer (as First Lady) |
Member of the Alabama House of Representatives from Barbour County | |
In office January 3, 1946 – January 3, 1955 | |
Personal details | |
Born | George Corley Wallace Jr. August 25, 1919 Clio, Alabama, U.S. |
Died | September 13, 1998 (aged 79) Montgomery, Alabama, U.S. |
Resting place | Greenwood Cemetery |
Political party | Democratic |
Other political affiliations | American Independent (1968) |
Spouses |
|
Children | 4 |
Education | Staff sergeant |
Unit | United States Army Air Forces |
Battles/wars | World War II |
George Corley Wallace Jr. (August 25, 1919 – September 13, 1998) was the 45th
Born in
Wallace challenged sitting president Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1964 Democratic presidential primaries, but Johnson prevailed in the race. In the 1968 presidential election, Wallace ran a third-party campaign in an attempt to force a contingent election in the United States House of Representatives, thereby enhancing the political clout of segregationist Southern leaders. Wallace won five Southern states but failed to force a contingent election. As of the 2024 election,[update] he remains the most recent third-party candidate to receive pledged electoral college votes from any state.
Wallace won election to the governorship again in
Early life
George Corley Wallace Jr. was born in
From age ten, Wallace was fascinated with politics. In 1935, he won a contest to serve as a page in the Alabama Senate, and confidently predicted that he would one day be governor.[11] Wallace became a regionally successful boxer in high school, then went directly to law school in 1937 at the University of Alabama School of Law in Tuscaloosa.[12] He was a member of the Delta Chi fraternity. It was at the University of Alabama that he crossed paths with future political adversary Frank Minis Johnson Jr., who would go on to become a prominent liberal federal judge.[13] Wallace also knew Chauncey Sparks, who became a conservative governor. These men had an effect on his personal politics reflecting the ideologies of both leaders later during his time in office.[citation needed] He received a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1942.[14]
Early in 1943, Wallace was accepted for pilot training by the
Racial attitude
While some may argue that Wallace did not espouse racist views, most sources support the conclusion that he was motivated by racist ideology.
For instance, one source on Wallace's career as a judge reports: "every black attorney who argued a case in Wallace's ... courtroom was struck by his fairness .... But no one who knew Wallace well ever took seriously his earnest profession – uttered a thousand times after 1963 – that he was a segregationist, not a racist."[18]
A reporter covering state politics in 1961 observed that, while other Alabama politicians conversed primarily about women and Alabama football, for Wallace "it was race – race, race, race – and every time that I was closeted alone with him, that's all we talked about."[19]
Wallace's preoccupation with race was based on his belief that black Americans comprised a separate and inferior race. In a 1963 letter to a social studies teacher, Wallace stated they were inclined to criminality – especially "atrocious acts ... such as rape, assault and murder" – because of a high incidence of venereal disease. Desegregation, he wrote, would lead to "intermarriage ... and eventually our race will be deteriated [sic] to that of the mongrel complexity."[20]
Early career
In 1938, at age 19, Wallace contributed to his grandfather's successful campaign for probate judge. Late in 1945, he was appointed as one of the assistant attorneys general of Alabama, and, in May 1946, he won his first election as a member to the
In 1952, he became the Circuit Judge of the
On the other hand, Wallace issued injunctions to prevent the removal of segregation signs in rail terminals, becoming the first Southern judge to do so.[22] Similarly, during efforts by civil rights organizations to expand voter registration of blacks, Wallace blocked federal efforts to review Barbour County voting lists. He was cited for criminal contempt of court in 1959.[22]
As judge, Wallace granted probation to some blacks, which may have cost him the 1958 gubernatorial election.[23]
1958 gubernatorial campaign
In 1958, Wallace ran in the Democratic
After the election, aide Seymore Trammell recalled Wallace saying, "Seymore, you know why I lost that governor's race? ... I was outniggered by John Patterson. And I'll tell you here and now, I will never be outniggered again."
Governor of Alabama
Segregation


In the 1962 Democratic primary, Wallace finished first, ahead of State Senator
Wallace took the oath of office on January 14, 1963, standing on the gold star marking the spot where, nearly 102 years earlier, Jefferson Davis was sworn in as provisional president of the Confederate States of America. In his inaugural speech, Wallace said:[24][25]
In the name of the greatest people that have ever trod this Earth, I draw the line in the dust and toss the gauntlet before the feet of tyranny, and I say segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever.
This sentence had been written by Wallace's new speechwriter, Ku Klux Klan leader Asa Earl Carter.
In 1963, President
In September 1963, Wallace attempted to stop four black students from enrolling in four separate elementary schools in Huntsville. After intervention by a federal court in Birmingham, the four children were allowed to enter on September 9, becoming the first to integrate a primary or secondary school in Alabama.[27][28]
Wallace desperately wanted to preserve segregation. In his own words: "The President [John F. Kennedy] wants us to surrender this state to
Wallace predicted, during a
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The Encyclopædia Britannica characterized him not so much as a segregationist but more as a "populist" who pandered to the white majority of Alabama voters.[1] It notes that his failed attempt at presidential politics created lessons that later influenced the populist candidacies of Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan.[1] Jack Newfield wrote in 1971 that Wallace "recently has been sounding like William Jennings Bryan as he attacked concentrated wealth in his speeches".[2]
Economics and education
This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2010) |
The principal achievement of Wallace's first term was an innovation in Alabama industrial development that several other states later copied: he was the first Southern governor to travel to corporate headquarters in northern states to offer tax abatements and other incentives to companies willing to locate plants in Alabama.
He also initiated a
The University of South Alabama, a new state university in Mobile, was chartered in 1963 during Wallace's first year in office as governor.
1964 Democratic presidential primaries
On November 15–20, 1963, in Dallas, Wallace announced his intention to oppose the incumbent president, John F. Kennedy, for the 1964 Democratic presidential nomination. Days later, also in Dallas, Kennedy was assassinated, and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded him as president.
Building upon his notoriety after the University of Alabama controversy, Wallace entered the Democratic primaries in 1964 on the advice of a public relations expert from Wisconsin.[32] Wallace campaigned strongly by expressing his opposition to integration and a tough approach on crime. In Democratic primaries in Wisconsin, Indiana, and Maryland, Wallace garnered at least a third of the vote running against three Johnson-designated surrogates.[33]
Wallace was known for stirring crowds with his oratory. The Huntsville Times interviewed Bill Jones, Wallace's first press secretary, who recounted "a particularly fiery speech in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1964 that scared even Wallace, [where he] angrily shouted to a crowd of 1,000 people that 'little Pinkos' were 'running around outside' protesting his visit, and continued, after thunderous applause, saying, 'When you and I start marching and demonstrating and carrying signs, we will close every highway in the country.' The audience leaped to its feet and headed for the exit", Jones said, "It shook Wallace. He quickly moved to calm them down."[23]
At graduation exercises in the spring of 1964 at Bob Jones University in Greenville, South Carolina, Wallace received an honorary doctorate.[34] At the commencement, Bob Jones Jr., read the following citation as a tribute to Wallace:[35]
Men who have fought for truth and righteousness have always been slandered, maligned, and misrepresented. The American press in its attacks upon Governor Wallace has demonstrated that it is no longer free, American, or honest. But you, Mr. Governor, have demonstrated not only by the overwhelming victories in the recent elections in your own state of Alabama, but also in the showing which you have made in states long dominated by cheap demagogues and selfish radicals that there is still in America love for freedom, hard common sense, and at least some hope for the preservation of our constitutional liberties.
1964 unpledged elector slate
In 1964, Alabama Republicans stood to benefit from the unintended consequences of two developments: (1) Governor Wallace vacating the race for the Democratic presidential nomination against President Johnson, and (2) the designation of unpledged Democratic electors in Alabama, in effect removing President Johnson from the general election ballot. Prior to the
The unpledged electors in Alabama included the future U.S. senator,
The 1964 Republican electors were the first since
First Gentleman of Alabama
Wallace defended his wife's proxy candidacy. He felt somewhat vindicated when Republicans in
During the 1966 campaign, George Wallace signed state legislation to nullify desegregation guidelines between Alabama cities and counties and the former
Martin also opposed the desegregation guidelines and had sponsored a U.S. House amendment to forbid the placement of students and teachers on the basis of racial quotas. He predicted that Wallace's legislation would propel the issuance of a court order compelling immediate and total desegregation in all public schools. He also compared the new Alabama law to "another two-and-a-half-minute stand in the schoolhouse door".[43]
Lurleen Wallace defeated Martin in the general election on November 8, 1966. She was inaugurated in January 1967, but on May 7, 1968, she died in office of cancer at the age of 41, amid her husband's ongoing second presidential campaign.[44] On her death, she was succeeded by Lieutenant Governor Albert Brewer, who had run without Republican opposition amid the Wallace–Martin races. George Wallace's influence in state government thus subsided until his next bid for election in his own right in 1970. He was "first gentleman" for less than a year and a half.
1968 third-party presidential run

Planning for Wallace's 1968 presidential campaign began with a strategy session on the evening of the March 1967 inauguration of Lurleen Wallace. The meeting featured prominent white supremacists and anti-Semites, including: Asa Carter; William Simmons of the

Wallace ran for president in the
In Wallace's 1998 obituary, The Huntsville Times political editor John Anderson summarized the impact from the 1968 campaign: "His startling appeal to millions of alienated white voters was not lost on Richard Nixon and other Republican strategists. First Nixon, then
Wallace considered
Wallace retracted the invitation, and (after considering
In 1968, Wallace pledged that "If some anarchist lies down in front of my automobile, it will be the last automobile he will ever lie down in front of" and asserted that the only
Major media outlets observed the support Wallace received from extremist groups such as White Citizens' Councils. It has been noted that members of such groups had permeated the Wallace campaign by 1968 and, while Wallace did not openly seek their support, he also never refused it.[51] Indeed, at least one case has been documented of the pro-Nazi[52] and white supremacist[53] Liberty Lobby distributing a pro-Wallace pamphlet entitled "Stand up for America" despite the campaign's denial of such a connection.[54] Unlike Strom Thurmond in 1948, Wallace generally avoided race-related discussions. He mostly criticized hippies and "pointy-headed intellectuals". He denied he was racist, saying once, "I've never made a racist speech in my life."[47]
While Wallace carried five Southern states, won almost ten million popular votes and 36 electoral votes, Nixon received 301 electoral votes, more than required to win the election. Wallace remains the last non-Democratic, non-Republican candidate to win any pledged electoral votes. Wallace also received the vote of one North Carolina elector who had been pledged to Nixon.
Many found Wallace an entertaining campaigner.[
Wallace decried the
Second term as governor

In 1970, Wallace sought the Democratic nomination against incumbent governor Albert Brewer, who was the first gubernatorial candidate since Reconstruction to seek African American voter support.[56] Although in the 1966 gubernatorial election then state Attorney General Richmond Flowers championed civil rights for all and, with the support of most of Alabama's black voters, finished second in the Democratic primary. Brewer unveiled a progressive platform and worked to build an alliance between blacks and the white working class. Of Wallace's out-of-state trips, Brewer said, "Alabama needs a full-time governor!"[57]
In the primary, Brewer received the most votes but failed to win a majority, which triggered a runoff election.[58]
In what later U.S. President Jimmy Carter called "one of the most racist campaigns in modern southern political history",[58] Wallace aired television advertising with slogans such as "Do you want the black bloc electing your governor?" and circulated an ad showing a white girl surrounded by seven black boys, with the slogan "Wake Up Alabama! Blacks vow to take over Alabama."[59] Wallace slurred Brewer, whom he called "Sissy Britches",[60] and his family.[56] In the runoff, Wallace narrowly won the Democratic nomination.[56] and won the general election in a landslide.
Though Wallace had promised not to run for president a third time,[57][58] the day after the election, he flew to Wisconsin to campaign for the upcoming 1972 United States presidential election.[57] Wallace, whose presidential ambitions would have been destroyed by a defeat for governor, has been said to have run "one of the nastiest campaigns in state history", using racist rhetoric while proposing few new ideas.[56]
1972 Democratic presidential primaries and attempted assassination


On January 13, 1972, Wallace declared himself a Democratic candidate. The field included Senator George McGovern, 1968 nominee and former U.S. vice president Hubert Humphrey, and nine other Democratic opponents.
Wallace announced that he no longer supported segregation and had always been a "moderate" on racial matters.
Attempted assassination

On May 15, 1972, Wallace was shot four times by Arthur Bremer while campaigning at the Laurel Shopping Center in Laurel, Maryland, at a time when he was receiving high ratings in national opinion polls.[63] Bremer was seen at a Wallace rally in Wheaton, Maryland, earlier that day and two days earlier at a rally in Kalamazoo, Michigan. Wallace was hit in the abdomen and chest, and one of the bullets lodged in Wallace's spinal column, leaving him paralyzed from the waist down for the rest of his life. No bullets hit his major organs though one narrowly missed his large Aorta.[64] A five-hour operation was needed that evening, and Wallace had to receive several units of blood to survive. Three others who were wounded in the shooting also survived. The shooting and Wallace's subsequent injuries put an effective end to his bid for the Democratic presidential nomination.[65] The assassination attempt was caught on film.[66]
Bremer's diary, An Assassin's Diary, published after his arrest, shows he was motivated in the assassination attempt by a desire for fame, not by political ideology.[b] He had considered President Nixon an earlier target.[67] He was convicted at trial. On August 4, 1972, Bremer was sentenced to 63 years in prison,[70] later reduced to 53 years.[71] Bremer served 35 years and was released on parole on November 9, 2007.[72]
Rest of the campaign

Following the assassination attempt, Wallace was visited at the hospital by Democratic Representative and presidential primary rival Shirley Chisholm,[74] a representative from Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn. At the time, she was the nation's only African-American female member of Congress. Despite their ideological differences and the opposition of Chisholm's constituents, Chisholm felt visiting Wallace was the humane thing to do. Other people to visit Wallace in hospital were President Nixon, Vice President Spiro Agnew, and presidential primary rivals Hubert Humphrey, George McGovern, and Ted Kennedy. He also received telegrams from former President Lyndon Johnson, California governor Ronald Reagan and Pope Paul VI.
After the shooting, Wallace won primaries in Maryland and Michigan, but his near assassination effectively ended his campaign. From his wheelchair, Wallace spoke on July 11, 1972, at the Democratic National Convention in Miami Beach, Florida.
Since Wallace was out of Alabama for more than 20 days while he was recovering in Holy Cross Hospital in Silver Spring, Maryland, the state constitution required Lieutenant Governor Jere Beasley to serve as acting governor from June 5 until Wallace's return to Alabama on July 7. Wallace resumed his gubernatorial duties and easily won the 1974 primary and general election, when he defeated Republican State Senator Elvin McCary, a real estate developer from Anniston, who received less than 15% of the ballots cast.[75]
In 1992, when asked to comment on the 20th anniversary of his attempted assassination, Wallace replied, "I've had 20 years of pain."[76]
1976 Democratic presidential primaries



In November 1975, Wallace announced his fourth bid for the presidency, again participating in the Democratic presidential primaries. Wallace's campaign was plagued by voter concern about his health[77] as well as the media use of images that portrayed him as nearly helpless.[78] His supporters complained that such coverage was motivated by bias, citing the discretion used in coverage of Franklin D. Roosevelt's paralysis, before television became commercially available. In the Southern primaries and caucuses, Wallace carried only Mississippi, South Carolina and his home state of Alabama. If the popular vote in all primaries and caucuses were combined, Wallace would have placed third behind former Georgia governor Jimmy Carter and California governor Jerry Brown. After the primaries were completed, and he had lost several Southern primaries to Carter, Wallace left the race in June 1976. He eventually endorsed Carter, who defeated Republican incumbent Gerald Ford.
Final term as governor

In the late 1970s, Wallace announced that he was a born-again Christian and apologized to black civil rights leaders for his past actions as a segregationist. He said that while he had once sought power and glory, he realized he needed to seek love and forgiveness.[note 2] In 1979, Wallace said of his stand in the schoolhouse door: "I was wrong. Those days are over, and they ought to be over."[79] He publicly asked for forgiveness from black Americans.[79][80]
In the 1982 Alabama gubernatorial Democratic primary, Wallace's main opponents were Lieutenant Governor George McMillan and Alabama House Speaker Joe McCorquodale. In the primary, McCorquodale was eliminated, and the vote went to a runoff, with Wallace holding a slight edge over McMillan. Wallace won the Democratic nomination by a margin of 51 to 49 percent. In the general election, his opponent was Montgomery Republican Mayor Emory Folmar. Polling experts at first thought the 1982 election was the best chance since Reconstruction for a Republican to be elected as governor of Alabama.[citation needed] Ultimately, though, it was Wallace, not Folmar, who claimed victory.
During Wallace's final term as governor (1983–1987) he appointed a record number of black Americans to state positions,[81] including, for the first time, two as members in the cabinet.
On April 2, 1986, Wallace announced at a press conference in Montgomery that he would not run for a fifth term as Governor of Alabama, and would retire from public life after leaving the governor's mansion in January 1987.[82] Wallace achieved four gubernatorial terms across three decades, totaling 16 years in office.
Marriages and children
Wallace married Lurleen Brigham Burns on May 22, 1943.[17][83][84] The couple had four children together: Bobbi Jo (1944) Parsons, Peggy Sue (1950) Kennedy, George III, known as George Junior (1951), and Janie Lee (1961), who was named after Robert E. Lee. Lurleen Wallace was the first woman to be elected governor of Alabama, which she did as a stand-in for her husband, who was barred from serving another term. In 1961, in keeping with the practice of many at the time to shield patients from discussion of cancer, which was greatly feared, Wallace had withheld information from her that a uterine biopsy had found possibly precancerous cells.[85] He also failed to seek appropriate care for her. When she saw a gynecologist for abnormal bleeding in 1965, her diagnosis of uterine cancer came as a complete shock. Lurleen was outraged to learn from one of her husband's aides that the staffers had known of her cancer since Wallace's 1962 campaign three years earlier.[85] Wallace continued to make campaign stops nationwide during Lurleen's last weeks of life and persistently lied to the press about her condition, claiming in April 1968 that "she has won the fight" against cancer.[86] After Lurleen's death in 1968, the couple's younger children, aged 18, 16, and 6, were sent to live with family members and friends for care (their eldest daughter had already married and left home).[87]
Their son, commonly called George Wallace Jr., is a Democrat-turned-Republican formerly active in Alabama politics. He was twice elected state treasurer as a Democrat, and twice elected to the Alabama Public Service Commission. He lost a race in 2006 for the Republican nomination for lieutenant governor. In 2010, Wallace Jr. failed by a wide margin to win the Republican nod to regain his former position as state treasurer.[citation needed]
On January 4, 1971, Wallace wed the former
On September 9, 1981, Wallace married Lisa Taylor, a country music singer; they divorced on February 2, 1987, weeks after Wallace had left office for the fourth and final time.[89][90]
Peggy was 12 years old when her father ran successfully for governor. She has shared that she was not treated nicely out in public due to her father's segregationist views. Some people would not shake her hand because of her last name. She would go to school wanting to befriend the black students, but she assumed that they would not like her because of what her father had done.[91]
Final years and death
In a 1995 interview, Wallace said that he planned to vote for Republican
He also revealed that he had voted for George H. W. Bush, another Republican, in 1992. His son, George Wallace Jr., officially switched from Democrat to Republican that same year. Wallace himself declined to identify as either a Republican or a Democrat. But he added, "The state is slowly going Republican because of Clinton being so liberal."[92]
In his later years, Wallace grew deaf and developed Parkinson's disease.[92]
Wallace eventually apologized and met with Vivian Malone Jones and James Hood, the black students who he had attempted to block from integrating the University of Alabama via the Stand in the Schoolhouse Door. The George Wallace Family Foundation had chosen Malone to receive the first Lurleen B. Wallace Award of Courage in October 1996, and Wallace himself presented the award to her. The night before the presentation, Malone and Wallace met privately where he apologized for his conduct, and she told him she had long-since forgiven him. Wallace praised her during the award presentation the next day, saying "Vivian Malone Jones was at the center of the fight over states' rights and conducted herself with grace, strength and, above all, courage."[93]
When Hood returned to the University of Alabama to earn a Ph.D. in interdisciplinary studies, he started a book on Wallace in 1996 and sat at his bedside for hours of interviews.[94] Hood believed in the sincerity of Wallace's apologies, saying that Wallace was haunted by people's lack of forgiveness for his actions.[95] Hood graduated in 1997 and requested that Wallace present his degree, and Wallace would have if not for his poor health.[94] Hood instead attended Wallace's 1998 funeral.[95]
At a restaurant a few blocks from the State Capitol, Wallace became something of a fixture. In constant pain, he was surrounded by an entourage of old friends and visiting well-wishers and continued this ritual until a few weeks before his death. Wallace died of septic shock from a bacterial infection in Jackson Hospital in Montgomery on September 13, 1998.[96] He had respiratory problems in addition to complications from his gunshot spinal injury. His grave is located at Greenwood Cemetery, in Montgomery.
Legacy
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Wallace was an unusual candidate who refused to condemn
With four failed runs for president, Wallace was unsuccessful in national politics.[99][100] His impact on American politics was significant with his biographers calling him "the most influential loser" in 20th century American politics.[101][102] In a YouTube documentary, Pat Buchanan stated that Wallace influenced "Nixon and Agnew, the Reagan movement, the Buchanan movement, the Perot movement."[103]
The TNT cable network produced a movie,
See also
Footnotes
- ^ Jere Beasley served as Acting Governor from June 5 to July 7, 1972, while Wallace recovered from an assassination attempt.
- ^ After the diary was read as evidence in court (including a passage where Bremer wonders whether Wallace's death will bring enough media coverage), William V. Shannon commented, "He... wanted to have his face flashed on millions of television screens and his name printed on the front pages of every newspaper."[67][68] Psychologist James W. Clarke notes, "Bremer had never been interested in politics... any prominent political leader would do since it was not ideology which motivated" him.[69]
Notes
- ^ Carter (1996, p. 2) notes that Wallace later denied a similar quotation that appeared in a 1968 biography by Marshall Frady: "'Well boys,' he said tightly as he snuffed out his cigar, 'no other son-of-a-bitch will ever out-nigger me again.'" Riechers, Maggie (March–April 2000). "Racism to Redemption: The Path of George Wallace". Humanities. 21 (2). Archived from the original on December 10, 2017. Retrieved May 25, 2006. The exact wording is a matter of historical dispute. Some sources quote Wallace as using the word "outsegged". In an extended note in "The Politics of Rage" (1995), p. 96 & 96fn, Carter notes the denial, but says two witnesses confirm the use of the racist language on Election Night, in addition to Seymore Trammell's recollection of Wallace using similar phrasing the next day in his presence.
- ^ According to Carter (1995, pp. 236–37), "But no one who knew Wallace well ever took seriously his earnest profession – uttered a thousand times after 1963 – that he [had been] a segregationist, not a racist. ... Wallace, like most white southerners of his generation, [had] genuinely believed blacks to be a separate, inferior race."
References
- ^ a b c "George C. Wallace". Encyclopædia Britannica. August 25, 2012. Retrieved August 25, 2012.
- ^ a b Newfield, Jack (July 19, 1971). "A Populist Manifesto: The Making of a New Majority". New York. pp. 39–46. Retrieved January 6, 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-201-62210-2.
- ^ a b Eskew, Glenn T. (September 8, 2008). "George C. Wallace (1963–1967, 1971–1979, 1983–1987)". Encyclopedia of Alabama.
- ^ a b "George Wallace, Segregation Symbol, Dies at 79". The New York Times. September 14, 1998.
- ^ "The Top 50 Longest Serving Governors in US History (Updated)". May 29, 2017.
- ^ Ostermeier, Eric (May 29, 2017). "The Top 50 Longest Serving Governors in US History (Updated)". Smart Politics. University of Minnesota. Archived from the original on March 1, 2021. Retrieved April 2, 2021.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 19-21.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 41.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 137.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 30-31.
- ^ "Alabama Governor George Wallace, gubernatorial history". Archives.state.al.us. Archived from the original on March 22, 2016. Retrieved January 8, 2011.
- ^ Bass, Jack. Taming the Storm: The Life and Times of Frank M. Jonson Jr., and the South's Fight over Civil Rights (Doubleday, New York, 1993).
- ^ "A life marked by hate, violence George Wallace gave comfort to racists". Baltimore Sun. September 20, 1998.
- ISBN 978-0817315740.
- ^ Lesher (1994) pp. 47–61.
- ^ a b Frederick, Stand Up for Alabama: Governor George Wallace, 2007, p. 12.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 236.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 237.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 237-238.
- ^ a b c d e Mccabe, Daniel (writer, director, producer), Paul Stekler (writer, director, producer), Steve Fayer (writer) (2000). George Wallace: Settin' the Woods on Fire (Documentary). Boston, USA: American Experience.
- ^ OCLC 588644.
- ^ a b c d Anderson, John (September 14, 1998). "Former governor shaped politics of Alabama, nation". The Huntsville Times. Huntsville, Alabama. p. A8.
- ^ Public Broadcasting Service. 2000. Retrieved September 5, 2006.
- ^ Klarman, Michael J. (March–April 2004). "Brown v. Board: 50 Years Later". Humanities: The Magazine of the National Endowment for the Humanities. Archived from the original on February 1, 2017. Retrieved September 6, 2006.
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- ^ Webb, Debbie (June 11, 2003). "Wallace in the Schoolhouse Door: Marking the 40th Anniversary of Alabama's Civil Rights Standoff". NPR. Retrieved August 17, 2012.
- ^ "A brief history of race and schools". al.com. The Huntsville Times. Archived from the original on April 23, 2008.
- ^ Alabama Governor George Wallace, public statement of May 8, 1963, in The New York Times. (May 9, 1963).
- ^ "Restore U.S. Sanity: Wallace". Chicago Tribune. September 18, 1964. Archived from the original on August 3, 2017. Retrieved May 5, 2017.
- JSTOR 2943855.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 203.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 198-225.
- ^ Archie Vernon Huff, Greenville: the history of the city and county in the South Carolina Piedmont, Columbia: U South Carolina P, 1995, p. 404.
- ^ Sword of the Lord (June 26, 1964) 2.
- ^ Montgomery Advertiser, September 23, 1966; Bill Jones, The Wallace Story, pp. 324, 327, 340.
- ^ The Tuscaloosa News, reprinted in The Birmingham News, September 5, 1964.
- ^ Congressional Quarterly report, Volume 23, Issues 40–53, p. 2443.
- ^ Billy Hathorn, "A Dozen Years in the Political Wilderness: The Alabama Republican Party, 1966–1978", Gulf Coast Historical Review, Vol. 9, No. 2 (Spring 1994), p. 22.
- ^ "Alabama Constitution of 1901, Amendment 282, Section 116". Alabama State Legislature. Retrieved December 30, 2016.
- ^ "A Dozen Years in the Political Wilderness", p. 22.
- ^ The Huntsville Times, September 3, 4, 1966; Montgomery Advertiser, September 1, 6, 1966.
- ^ Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, October 7, 1966, p. 2350.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 317-320.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 295–298.
- ^ a b Kauffman, Bill (May 19, 2008) When the Left Was Right, The American Conservative
- ^ a b Brands 2010, p. 165.
- ^ Carter, Dan, professor of history at Emory University, quoted in Anderson, John (September 14, 1998). "Former governor shaped politics of Alabama, nation". The Huntsville Times. Huntsville, Alabama. p. A1, A8.
- ISBN 978-0201622102.
- ISBN 978-0743243025.
- ISBN 978-0898628647.
- ^ Trento, Joseph and Spear, Joseph, "How Nazi Nut Power Has Invaded Capitol Hill", True (November 1969): 39.
- ^ Pearson, Drew; Anderson, Jack (1966). "Drew Pearson and Jack Anderson on The Washington Merry-Go-Round" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 18, 2011. Retrieved August 8, 2010.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 296–297.
- ISBN 0671241109. p. 56.
- ^ ISBN 978-0585263670.
- ^ a b c "Steve Flowers Inside the Statehouse". Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved October 25, 2006. Flowers, Steve, "Steve Flowers Inside the Statehouse", October 12, 2005.
- ^ ISBN 978-0195076806.
- ISBN 978-0275985103.
- ^ "Season Openers - Printout". Time. May 4, 1970. Archived from the original on September 14, 2012. Retrieved January 8, 2011.
- ^ Parmet, pp. 595–597, 603.
- ^ Carter (1996), pp. 17–32.
- ^ Greider, William (May 16, 1972). "Wallace Is Shot, Legs Paralyzed; Suspect Seized at Laurel Rally". Washington Post. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
- ^ Corvallis Gazette-Times - Thu, 01 Jun 1972 · Page 6
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved August 22, 2020.
- ^ "1972 George Wallace Assassination Attempt". YouTube. January 26, 2017. Retrieved November 25, 2021.
- ^ New York Times. Retrieved April 3, 2024.
- New York Times. Retrieved April 3, 2024.
- JSTOR 3791286. Retrieved April 3, 2024.
- New York Times. Retrieved April 3, 2024.
- New York Times. September 29, 1972. Retrieved April 3, 2024.
- New York Times. Retrieved April 3, 2024.
- ^ "Cheryl Truman, "David Dick, former CBS newsman from Ky., dies at age 80: CBS veteran embraced rural life", July 17, 2010". Lexington Herald-Leader. Archived from the original on July 15, 2014. Retrieved June 3, 2014.
- ^ "Shirley Chisholm". The Blog of Death. January 4, 2005. Archived from the original on January 3, 2011. Retrieved January 8, 2011.
- Alabama Secretary of State. December 8, 2010. Retrieved June 19, 2022.
- ^ Wallace, George (September 14, 1998). "Wallace in his own words". The Huntsville Times. Huntsville, Alabama. p. A9.
- ^ "Wallace enters race". Google News Search Archive. Charlottesville, Virginia: The Cavalier Daily. November 13, 1975. p. 1. Retrieved December 12, 2017.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved November 6, 2022.
- ^ a b Edwards, George C., Government in America: people, politics, and policy(2009), Pearson Education, 80.
- National Public Radio. Retrieved February 4, 2015.
- ISBN 978-0395513729.
- ISBN 978-0789446404.
- ISBN 978-0201407983.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: url-status (link - ^ "City Has Been Home of Four Governors". The Tuscaloosa News. April 24, 1969. p. 14E.
- ^ a b Carter 1995, p. 277-278.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 319.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 322.
- ^ Former Alabama first lady Cornelia Wallace dies[permanent dead link ], WZTV FOX17/Nashville
- ]
- ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved March 9, 2024.
- OCLC 1098920753.
- ^ a b "Wallace backs Bob Dole for president". The Gadsden Times. September 16, 1995. Retrieved September 27, 2017.
- ^ Archives, L. A. Times (October 11, 1996). "George Wallace Honors a Foe of Yesteryear". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 2, 2025. Retrieved January 2, 2025.
- ^ a b "DECADES AFTER GEORGE WALLACE DENIED JAMES HOOD ADMISSION TO THE UNIVERSITY, THE PAIR HAS DEVELOPED AN UNLIKELY FRIENDSHIP". Chicago Tribune. February 3, 1998. Retrieved January 2, 2025.
- ^ a b Bragg, Rick (September 17, 1998). "Quietly, Alabama Troopers Escort Wallace for Last Time". The New York Times.
- ^ Cornwell, Rupert (September 15, 1998). "Obituary: George Wallace". The Independent. Retrieved August 23, 2019.
- ISBN 978-1-5247-6293-3.
- Public Broadcasting Service. 1999. Retrieved May 25, 2006. Web site for the PBS documentary, including a complete transcript, references to other Wallace information, and tools for teachers.
- ^ "Victorious Loser", Newsweek, May 13, 1964, p. 13.
- ^ Irving Louis Horowitz (1984). Winners and Losers: Social and Political Polarities in America. Duke University Press. p. 164.
- ^ Carter 1995, p. 468.
- ISBN 978-0201622102.
- ^ "George Wallace Documentary - Part 2". YouTube. March 23, 2014. Retrieved July 29, 2022.
- New York Times. Retrieved April 1, 2024.
- ^ "1998 - 50th Emmy Awards | Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Special - 1998". emmys.com. Retrieved April 1, 2024.
- ^ "Actor Finds Wallace Life 'Hopeful'". CBS News. September 14, 1998. Retrieved April 1, 2024.
- ^ James, Caryn (May 17, 2002). "Many Advise, Mr. President, but You Decide". The New York Times. Retrieved April 1, 2024.
- ^ Scott, A.O. (December 24, 2014). "A 50-Mile March, Nearly 50 Years Later". The New York Times. Retrieved April 1, 2024.
- ^ Nail, Tim. "Petition calls for University to rename Wallace Hall". The Auburn Plainsman. Retrieved October 13, 2020.
- ^ Balasky, Bri (September 30, 2020). "Board of Trustees votes to rename Bibb Graves and Comer". The Alabamian. Retrieved October 13, 2020.
Bibliography
- Carter, Dan T. (1995). The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-684-80916-8.
- ISBN 978-1594202629.
- Parmet, Herbert S. (1990). Richard Nixon and His America. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. ISBN 978-0-316-69232-8.
Further reading
- Doris, Margaret (October 26, 1982). "The return of George Wallace". The Boston Phoenix. Retrieved September 27, 2024.
- Frady, Marshall (1968). Wallace. New York: World Publishing Co. OCLC 1200799828. (1996 Random House ed.).
- Kennedy, Peggy Wallace; H. Mark Kennedy (2019). The Broken Road: George Wallace and a Daughter's Journey to Reconciliation. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. OCLC 1076505149.
External links
![]() | This section's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. (June 2019) |
- Governor Wallace's Schoolhouse Door speech Archived August 6, 2002, at the Wayback Machine archived at The University of Alabama
- George Wallace article at the Encyclopedia of Alabama
- George Wallace – Daily Telegraph obituary
- Oral History Interview with George Wallace from Oral Histories of the American South
- Caught on Tape: The White House Reaction to the Shooting of Alabama Governor and Democratic Presidential Candidate George Wallace from History's News Network: http://hnn.us/articles/45104.html
- George Wallace: Settin' the Woods on Fire— documentary, including complete transcript, teacher tools and links
- 1963 gubernatorial inauguration address
- Cornelia Wallace's Obituary on Decatur Daily
- Political Graveyard
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Speech by George Wallace given on March 16, 1970. Audio recording from The University of Alabama's Emphasis Symposium on Contemporary Issues
- Footage of campaign speech given by George Wallace on May 1, 1964, at Ball State Teachers College in Muncie, Indiana
- Alabama Needs "The Little Judge" – 1960/1961 Pro-Segregation Comic Book commissioned directly by George Wallace during his campaign for Governor of Alabama.
- George Wallace at IMDb
- George Wallace collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Meeting Elvis Presley with his family backstage before Elvis's concert at the Garrett Coliseum in Montgomery, AL on March 6, 1974. http://www.elvis-collectors.com/candid-central/wallace74.html
- Testimony from Hosea Williams, John Lewis, and Amelia Boynton et al. v. Honorable George C. Wallace, Governor of Alabama et al.[permanent dead link ] from the National Archives and Records Administration