Japanese aircraft carrier Kaga
Kaga after her modernization, with her distinctive downward-facing funnel
| |
Class overview | |
---|---|
Operators | Imperial Japanese Navy |
Preceded by | Akagi |
Succeeded by | Ryūjō |
Built | 1920–1928 |
In service | 1928–1942 |
In commission | 1928–1942 |
Completed | 1 |
Lost | 1 |
History | |
Japan | |
Name | Kaga |
Namesake | Kaga Province |
Builder | Kawasaki and Yokosuka Naval Arsenal |
Cost | ¥53 million ($36.45 million)[1] |
Laid down | 19 July 1920 |
Launched | 17 November 1921 |
Completed | 31 March 1928 |
Commissioned | 30 November 1929 |
Reclassified | 21 November 1923 as an aircraft carrier |
Refit | 20 October 1933 – 25 June 1935 |
Stricken | 10 August 1942 |
Fate | Sunk by dive bombers from the USS Enterprise during the Battle of Midway , 4 June 1942 |
General characteristics (after 1935 modernization) | |
Type | Aircraft carrier |
Displacement | 38,200 long tons (38,813 t) (standard) |
Length | 247.65 m (812 ft 6 in) |
Beam | 32.5 m (106 ft 8 in) |
Draft | 9.48 m (31 ft 1 in) |
Installed power |
|
Propulsion | 4 shafts; 4 geared steam turbines |
Speed | 28 knots (52 km/h; 32 mph) |
Endurance | 10,000 nmi (19,000 km; 12,000 mi) at 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph) |
Complement | 1,708 (after reconstruction) |
Armament |
|
Armor | |
Aircraft carried |
|
Kaga (加賀) was an
The ship figured prominently in the development of the IJN's carrier striking force doctrine, which grouped carriers together to give greater mass and concentration to their air power. A revolutionary strategic concept at the time, the employment of the doctrine was crucial in enabling Japan to attain its initial strategic goals during the first six months of the Pacific War.
Kaga's aircraft first supported Japanese troops in
Following repairs, Kaga rejoined the
Design and construction
Kaga was laid down as a Tosa-class battleship, and was launched on 17 November 1921 at the Kawasaki Heavy Industries shipyard in Kobe. On 5 February 1922 both Tosa-class ships were canceled and scheduled to be scrapped under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty.[3]
The Treaty authorized conversion of two battleship or battlecruiser hulls into aircraft carriers of up to 33,000 long tons (34,000 t) standard displacement. The incomplete battlecruisers Amagi and Akagi were initially selected, but the Great Kantō earthquake of 1923 damaged Amagi's hull beyond economically feasible repair, and Kaga was selected as her replacement. The formal decision to convert Kaga to an aircraft carrier was issued 13 December 1923, but no work took place until 1925 as new plans were drafted and earthquake damage to the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal was repaired. She was officially commissioned on 31 March 1928, but this signified only the beginning of sea trials. She joined the Combined Fleet (Rengō Kantai) on 30 November 1929 as the IJN's third carrier to enter service, after Hōshō (1922) and Akagi (1927).[4]
Kaga was completed with a length of 238.5 meters (782 ft 6 in)
Flight deck arrangements
Kaga, like Akagi, was completed with three superimposed flight decks, the only carriers ever to be designed so. The British carriers converted from "large light cruisers",
As completed, the ship had two main hangar decks and a third auxiliary hangar with a total capacity of 60 aircraft. The hangars opened onto the middle and lower flight decks to allow aircraft to take off directly from the hangars while landing operations were in progress on the main flight deck above. No catapults were fitted.[12] Her forward aircraft elevator was offset to starboard and 10.67 by 15.85 meters (35 by 52 ft) in size. Her aft elevator was on the centerline and 12.8 by 9.15 meters (42 by 30 ft). Her arresting gear was a French transverse system as used on their aircraft carrier Béarn and known as the Model Fju (Fju shiki) in the Japanese service.[13] As originally completed, Kaga carried an air group of 28 Mitsubishi B1M3 torpedo bombers, 16 Nakajima A1N fighters and 16 Mitsubishi 2MR reconnaissance aircraft.[5][Note 1]
Armament and armor
Kaga was armed with ten 20 cm (7.9 in) 3rd Year Type guns, one twin-gun Model B turret on each side of the middle flight deck and six in casemates aft. They fired 110-kilogram (240 lb) projectiles at a rate of three to six rounds per minute with a muzzle velocity of 870 m/s (2,900 ft/s); at 25°, they had a maximum range between 22,600 and 24,000 m (24,700 and 26,200 yd). The Model B turrets were nominally capable of 70° elevation to provide additional anti-aircraft (AA) fire, but in practice the maximum elevation was only 55°. The slow rate of fire and the fixed 5° loading angle minimized any real anti-aircraft capability.[14] This heavy gun armament was provided in case she was surprised by enemy cruisers and forced to give battle, but her large and vulnerable flight deck, hangars, and other features made her more of a target in any surface action than a fighting warship. Carrier doctrine was still evolving at this time and the impracticability of carriers engaging in gun duels had not yet been realized.[15][Note 2]
She was given an anti-aircraft armament of six twin 12-centimeter (4.7 in) 10th Year Type Model A2 gun mounts fitted on sponsons below the level of the funnels, where they could not fire across the flight deck, three mounts per side.[16] These guns fired 20.3-kilogram (45 lb) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 825–830 m/s (2,707–2,723 ft/s); at 45° this provided a maximum range of 16,000 meters (17,000 yd), and they had a maximum ceiling of 10,000 meters (33,000 ft) at 75° elevation. Their effective rate of fire was 6 to 8 rounds per minute.[17] She had two Type 89 directors to control her 20 cm guns and two Type 91 manually powered anti-aircraft directors (Kōshaki) to control her 12 cm guns.[18] Kaga's waterline armored belt was reduced from 280 to 152 mm (11 to 6 in) during her reconstruction and the upper part of her torpedo bulge was given 127 mm (5 in) of armor. Her deck armor was also reduced from 102 to 38 mm (4 to 1 in).[13]
Propulsion
When Kaga was being designed, the problem of how to deal with exhaust gases in carrier operations had not been resolved. The swiveling funnels of Hōshō had not proved successful and wind-tunnel testing had not provided an answer. As a result, Akagi and Kaga were given different exhaust systems to evaluate in real-world conditions. Kaga's funnel gases were collected in a pair of long horizontal ducts which discharged at the rear of each side of the flight deck, in spite of predictions by a number of prominent naval architects that they would not keep the hot gases away from the flight deck. The predictions proved to be correct, not least because Kaga was slower than Akagi, which allowed the gases to rise and interfere with landing operations. Another drawback was that the heat of the gases made the crew's quarters located on the side of the ship by the funnels almost uninhabitable.[13]
Kaga was completed with four Kawasaki Brown-Curtis geared
Early service and development of carrier doctrine
Kaga's aircraft, operating from both the carrier and a temporary base at Kunda Airfield in Shanghai, flew missions in support of Japanese ground forces throughout February 1932. During one of these missions three of Kaga's Nakajima A1N2 fighters, including one piloted by future ace Toshio Kuroiwa, escorting three Mitsubishi B1M3 torpedo bombers, scored the IJN's first air-to-air combat victory on 22 February when they shot down a Boeing P-12 flown by an American volunteer pilot.[19][22] Kaga returned to home waters upon the declaration of the cease-fire on 3 March and resumed fleet training with the rest of the Combined Fleet.[19]
At this time, the IJN's developing carrier doctrine was still in its earliest stages. Kaga and the other carriers were initially given roles as tactical force multipliers supporting the fleet's battleships in the IJN's "
Kaga was soon judged inferior to Akagi because of her slower speed, smaller flight deck (64 feet (19.5 m) shorter), and problematic funnel arrangement. Because of Kaga's perceived limitations, she was given priority over Akagi for modernization.[24] Kaga was relegated to reserve status on 20 October 1933 to begin a second major reconstruction, with an official start date of 25 June 1934.[20]
Reconstruction
During her second reconstruction Kaga's two lower flight decks were converted into hangars and, along with the main flight deck, were extended to the bow. This increased the flight deck length to 248.55 meters (815 ft 5 in) and raised aircraft capacity to 90 (72 operational and 18 in storage).[25] A third elevator forward, 11.5 by 12 meters (37 ft 9 in × 39 ft 4 in), serviced the extended hangars.[5] Bomb and torpedo elevators were modified to deliver their munitions directly to the flight deck. Her arrester gear was replaced by a Japanese-designed Type 1 system. A small starboard island superstructure was also installed.[12]
Her power plant was completely replaced as were her propellers. Kaga was equipped with eight improved oil-burning models of the Kampon Type B (Ro) with a working pressure of 22 kg/cm2 (2,157 kPa; 313 psi) at a temperature of 300 °C (572 °F). New Kampon multi-stage geared turbines were fitted that increased her power from 91,000 to 127,400 shp (67,859 to 95,002 kW) during trials. The hull was lengthened by 10.3 meters (33 ft 10 in) at the stern to reduce drag and she was given another torpedo bulge above the side armor abreast the upper part of the existing bulge to increase her beam and lower her center of gravity as a result of lessons learned from the Tomozuru Incident in early 1934. This raised her standard displacement significantly, from 26,900 to 38,200 long tons (27,332 to 38,813 t). The extra power and the extra displacement roughly offset each other and her speed increased by less than a knot, up to 28.34 knots (52.49 km/h; 32.61 mph) on trials. Her fuel storage was increased to 7,500 long tons (7,620 t) of fuel oil which increased her endurance to 10,000 nmi (19,000 km; 12,000 mi) at 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph). The lengthy funnel ducting was replaced by a single downturned starboard funnel modeled on that used by the Akagi with a water-cooling system for the exhaust gasses and a cover that could be raised to allow the exhaust gasses to escape if the ship developed a severe list and the mouth of the funnel touched the sea. The space freed up by the removal of the funnel ducts was divided into two decks and converted into living quarters for the expanded air group.[26] The carrier's complement increased to 1708 crewmembers.[27]
The two twin turrets on the middle flight deck were removed and four new 20 cm 3rd Year Type No. 1 guns in casemates were added forward. Her 12 cm anti-aircraft guns were replaced by eight 12.7-centimeter (5.0 in) Type 89 guns in twin mounts. They fired 23.45-kilogram (51.7 lb) projectiles at a rate between 8 and 14 rounds per minute at a muzzle velocity of 700–725 m/s (2,300–2,380 ft/s); at 45°, this provided a maximum range of 14,800 meters (16,200 yd), and a maximum ceiling of 9,400 meters (30,800 ft).
Several major weaknesses in Kaga's design were not rectified. Kaga's aviation fuel tanks were incorporated directly into the structure of the carrier, meaning that shocks to the ship, such as those caused by bomb or shell hits, would be transmitted directly to the tanks, resulting in cracks or leaks. Also, the fully enclosed structure of the new hangar decks made fire suppression difficult, at least in part because fuel vapors could accumulate in the hangars. Adding to the danger was the requirement from the Japanese carrier doctrine that aircraft be serviced, fueled, and armed whenever possible on the hangar decks rather than on the flight deck. In addition, the carrier's hangar and flight decks carried little armor protection. Furthermore, there was no redundancy in the ship's fire-extinguishing systems. These weaknesses would later be crucial factors in the loss of the ship.[30]
Sino-Japanese War
Kaga returned to service in 1935 and was assigned to the
The renewal of hostilities with China at the
Kaga aircraft fought their first battle on 15 August 1937, when thirteen Aichi D1A1 (Type 94) dive-bombers encountered
On 26 September the carrier went to
Kaga returned to the front in early October 1937, and except for two brief trips to Sasebo, remained off China until December 1938. Using
On 11 November 1937, three Chinese Air Force Northrop Gamma 2ECs of the 2nd BG, 14th Squadron led by Captain Yu Y.C. attacked Kaga off the Maanshan Islands near Shanghai; the bombs fell wide into Kaga's wake, and the Chinese Gammas were pursued and intercepted by three A5Ms of Kaga's combat air patrol (CAP) led by flight leader Jirō Chōno, which shot down two of the Gammas, while Yu managed to escape into the clouds and return to base in his damaged Gamma.[40]
Six Kaga fighters were assigned to land bases near Shanghai and Nanking between 9 December 1937 and 15 January 1938. Nine fighters were temporarily based out of Nanking from 3 March through 4 April 1938. On 13 April 1938, Kaga launched eighteen D1A1s and three each of A4Ns and A5Ms on a strike against
Kaga entered the shipyard on 15 December 1938, where her arresting gear was replaced by a Type 3 system and her bridge was modernized. The flight deck and hangar areas were enlarged, increasing the carrier's aircraft capacity. The ship was completely overhauled from 15 November 1939 to 15 November 1940 before returning to active service. In the meantime, a new generation of aircraft had entered service and Kaga embarked 12 A5M fighters, 24 D1A dive bombers and 36 B4Y torpedo bombers. Another 18 aircraft were carried in crates as spares.[20][44][Note 3]
The Japanese carriers' experiences off China had helped further develop the IJN's carrier doctrine. One lesson learned in China was the importance of concentration and mass in projecting naval air power ashore. Therefore, in April 1941 the IJN formed the
Although the concentration of so many fleet carriers into a single unit was a new and revolutionary offensive strategic concept, the First Air Fleet suffered from several defensive deficiencies which gave it, in Mark Peattie's words, a "'glass jaw': it could throw a punch but couldn't take one."[46] Japanese carrier anti-aircraft guns and associated fire control systems had several design and configuration deficiencies which limited their effectiveness. The IJN's fleet CAP consisted of too few fighter aircraft and was hampered by an inadequate early warning system, including a lack of radar. Poor radio communications with the fighter aircraft inhibited effective command and control of the CAP. The carriers' escorting warships were deployed as visual scouts in a ring at long range, not as close anti-aircraft escorts, as they lacked training, doctrine, and sufficient anti-aircraft guns. These deficiencies would eventually doom Kaga and other First Air Fleet carriers.[47]
World War II
Pearl Harbor
In November 1941 the IJN's Combined Fleet, under
For the attack on Pearl Harbor, Kaga carried a total of 18 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters, 27 Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers and 27 Aichi D3A[Note 5] dive bombers, plus three crated aircraft of each type for the operation. During the morning of 7 December 1941 Kaga aircraft participated in both First Air Fleet strikes launched against Oahu from a position 230 nautical miles (430 km) north of the island. In the first strike of 183 total aircraft (six aborted), 26 Kaga B5N carrier attack bombers attacked the American ships at anchor with bombs and torpedoes, escorted by nine Zeros. In the second strike of 167 aircraft (four aborted), 26 Kaga D3A dive bombers targeted the airfield at Ford Island in the middle of the harbor while nine Zeros provided escort and attacked aircraft on the ground.[49] A total of five B5Ns, four Zeros and six D3As from the ship were lost during the two strikes, along with their aircrews, a total of 31 personnel.[50] Kaga's bomber and torpedo crews claimed hits on the battleships Nevada, Oklahoma, Arizona, California, West Virginia, and Maryland.[51] The ship's fighter pilots claimed to have shot down one US aircraft and destroyed 20 on the ground.[52][Note 6] Upon completion of the attack, the First and Fifth Carrier divisions, including Kaga, returned immediately to Japan.[48]
Pacific conquest
In January 1942, together with the rest of the First and Fifth Carrier Division carriers and staging out of
On 9 February Kaga hit a reef at
Battle of Midway
Midway raid
Concerned by the US carrier strikes such as the
In support of MI, on 27 May 1942, Kaga departed the Inland Sea with the Combined Fleet on her final mission, in the company of carriers Akagi, Hiryū, and Sōryū which constituted the First and Second Carrier Divisions. Her aircraft complement was 27 Zeros, 20 D3As, and 27 B5Ns.[56][Note 9] With the fleet positioned 250 nmi (460 km; 290 mi) northwest of Midway Island at dawn on 4 June 1942, Kaga contributed eighteen D3As, commanded by Lieutenant Shōichi Ogawa, escorted by nine Zeros to the strike against the island. The carrier's B5Ns were armed with torpedoes and kept ready in case enemy ships were discovered during the Midway raid. One each of the D3As and Zeros was shot down by AA fire over Midway, and another four D3As were damaged. Kaga's Zero pilots claimed to have shot down 12 US aircraft over Midway Island. One Kaga B5N was launched to augment the fleet's reconnaissance of the surrounding ocean.[Note 10] The carrier also put up two Zeros on CAP.[52][57] Another five Zeros reinforced her CAP at 07:00 and the seven fighters helped to defend the Kido Butai from the first US air attackers from Midway Island at 07:10. Unknown to the Japanese, the US Navy had divined the Japanese MI plan from signals intelligence and had prepared an ambush using its three available carriers, positioned northeast of Midway.[58]
At 07:15 Admiral Nagumo ordered the B5Ns still on Kaga and Akagi rearmed with bombs for another attack on Midway itself. This process was limited by the number of ordnance carts used to handle the bombs and torpedoes and the limited number of ordnance elevators. Thus, the torpedoes could not be struck below until after all the bombs were moved up from their magazine, assembled and mounted on the aircraft. This process normally took about an hour and a half; more time would be required to bring the aircraft up to the flight deck and warm up and launch the strike group. Around 07:40 Nagumo reversed his order when he received a message that American carriers had been spotted. At 07:30 Kaga recovered three of her CAP.[59]
Sinking
Kaga's four remaining CAP fighters were in the process of landing when 16
The five Zeros launched at 08:15 were recovered aboard at 09:10 and replaced by six more Zeros launched at 09:20. They intercepted the first US carrier aircraft to attack,
Soon after the torpedo plane attacks, American carrier dive bombers arrived over the Japanese carriers almost undetected and began their dives. At 10:22, 25 SBD Dauntless dive-bombers from Enterprise, led by C. Wade McClusky, hit Kaga with one 1,000-pound (450 kg) bomb and at least three 500-pound (230 kg) bombs. The first landed near her rear elevator and set the berthing compartments on fire, and the next bomb hit the forward elevator and penetrated the upper hangar, setting off explosions and fires among the armed and fueled planes on her hangar deck. The third bomb exploded directly on the island, destroying the bridge, killing Okada and most of his command staff. The 1000-pound bomb hit amidships and penetrated the flight deck to explode on the upper hangar. The explosions ruptured the ship's avgas lines, damaged both her port and starboard fire mains and the emergency generator powering her fire pumps, as well as knocking out the carbon dioxide fire suppression system.[63] Fueled by the avgas pouring onto the hangar deck, the fires detonated the 80,000 pounds (36,000 kg) of bombs and torpedoes strewn across the hangar deck in a series of catastrophic multiple fuel-air explosions that blew out the hangar sides.[64] At nearly the same time, dive bombers hit and fatally damaged Akagi and Sōryū.[65][Note 11]
Unable to contain her fires, Kaga's survivors were taken off by the destroyers
The carrier's crew suffered 811 fatalities, mainly among the aircraft mechanics and armorers stationed on the hangar decks and the ship's engineers, many of whom were trapped below in the boiler and engine rooms by uncontrolled fires raging on the decks above them. Twenty-one of the ship's aviators were killed.[68][Note 13] Kaga's surviving crewmembers were restricted incommunicado to an airbase in Kyūshū for one to two months after returning to Japan, to help conceal word of the Midway defeat from the Japanese public.[69] Many of the survivors were then transferred back to frontline units without being allowed to contact family. Some of the injured were quarantined in hospitals for almost a year.[70] This was the highest loss of lives of all the Japanese carriers lost at Midway.
The loss of Kaga and the three other IJN carriers at Midway (Hiryū was also sunk during the battle), with their aircraft and veteran pilots, was a crucial strategic defeat for Japan and contributed significantly to Japan's ultimate defeat in the war.[71]
Wreck survey
In May 1999, the Nauticos Corporation, in partnership with the US Navy, discovered some wreckage from Kaga.
On 18 October 2019, the wreck of Kaga was located by the Director of Undersea Operations for Vulcan Inc. Rob Kraft, David W. Jourdan and Naval History and Heritage Command historian Frank Thompson aboard RV Petrel. She sits upright at a depth of about 18,000 ft (5.4 km), buried up to the degaussing wires in the seafloor and with most of her superstructure and flight deck missing. The wreck is surrounded by a large debris field and has been heavily colonized by marine growth.[75] The wreck of Akagi was found by the same crew two days later.[76] A more extensive survey of the wreck was conducted by the EV Nautilus in September 2023.[77]
Notes
- ^ Hata, p. 24, gives the carrier's initial aircraft complement as 12 Type 3 fighters (plus three crated spares), six reconnaissance aircraft (with two spares), and 18 torpedo bombers (six spares).
- ^ The United States Navy did much the same with the provision of four twin 8-inch (203 mm) gun turrets on their Lexington-class carriers. See Gardiner and Grey, p. 110.
- ^ Hata, p. 27, gives Kaga's aircraft complement after overhaul as 12 fighters with four spares, 18 dive bombers with six spares, and 48 torpedo bombers with 16 spares.
- ^ According to Parshall and Tully, pp. 86–87, the Japanese would not usually launch their entire carrier air groups into a single massed attack. Instead, each carrier would launch a "deckload strike" of all its aircraft that could be spotted at one time on each flight deck. Subsequent attack waves consisted of the next deckload of aircraft. Thus, 1st Air Fleet air attacks would often consist of at least two, massed waves of aircraft. Peattie (p. 152) and Jisaburō Ozawa (Goldstein, pp. 78–80) emphasize that the First Air Fleet was not the IJN's primary strategic striking force. The IJN still considered the First Air Fleet an integral component in the Combined Fleet's decisive battle task force centered on battleships.
- ^ The Allied reporting name for these aircraft were "Zeke", "Kate" and "Val" respectively.
- ^ Fourteen of the B5N in the first wave carried bombs and the other 12 torpedoes. A 15th bomb-carrying B5N aborted due to engine trouble. Five torpedo planes and two Zeros were lost in the first wave and two Zeros and the six dive bombers in the second wave (Werneth, p. 111).
- ^ Takeshi Maeda, a B5N crewmember on Kaga, states that the carrier grounded at Staring Bay in March, not at Palau in February. The discrepancy is not explained in the sources. (Werneth, p. 116)
- Doolittle raid bombers. The attack group, including 29 land bombers and 12 Zeros from the 26th Air Flotillain addition to the Kaga fighters, flew east for 600 nmi (1,100 km; 690 mi) before turning back after being unable to locate the American carriers, which had already departed the area (Hata, p. 148). After the Indian Ocean raid, Kaga was used for limited air operations training by all the First Air Fleet air units in May as the other carriers were in the shipyard for refitting. (Parshall and Tully, p. 88)
- ^ Nine of the Zeros were intended to be stationed on Midway after the invasion and belonged to the 6th Air Group. Two of the D3As were in crates and were either replacements for Sōryū or also members of the 6th Air Group. (Parshall and Tully, p. 451)
- ^ Twenty-five total US aircraft were lost over Midway during the air raid. (Willmott, p. 380)
- ^ USS Nautilus fired four torpedoes at the carrier; one misfired, two others missed, and one hit the burning Kaga around 14:05, but it was a dud. (Parshall and Tully, pp. 302–303) The torpedo broke in two and the warhead portion sank. The floating half was later used as a life preserver by several Kaga survivors. (Willmott, p. 427)
- ^ Parshall and Tully (p. 337) state that the two destroyers rescued over 700 of the carrier's crew. Since the carrier reportedly had a complement of 1708 (Parshall and Tully, p. 467), there should have been around 900 survivors, but the discrepancy in the numbers is not explained by the sources.
- ^ Peattie, p. 338, states that eight Kaga airmen were killed in the air and 13 died aboard the ship. Of the 15 Kaga CAP Zeros airborne at the time the carrier was hit, five were destroyed in aerial combat and the remainder were recovered by Hiryū. Two subsequently participated in the second Hiryū airstrike on Yorktown while four others augmented the remaining carrier's CAP. All 10 pilots survived (Parshall and Tully, pp. 502–503; Lundstrom, pp. 351, 414).
Footnotes
- ^ Parshall and Tully, p. 535
- ^ Nauticos
- ^ Gardiner and Gray, p. 232; Jentschura, p. 35
- ^ Lengerer, p. 128
- ^ a b c Lengerer, p. 129
- ^ Jentschura, p. 42
- ^ Brown, p. 2
- ^ Peattie, p. 231
- ^ Lengerer, pp. 130, 134
- ^ Lengerer, pp. 130, 136
- ^ Peattie, pp. 54–55
- ^ a b Ireland, pp. 102–103
- ^ a b c d Lengerer, p. 134
- ^ Campbell, p. 187
- ^ Peattie, pp. 53, 55
- ^ Lengerer, p. 131
- ^ Campbell, p. 194
- ^ Parshall and Tully, pp. 140, 467
- ^ a b c Hata, p. 24
- ^ a b c Lengerer, p. 172
- ^ Peattie, p. 37
- ^ Peattie, pp. 50–51
- ^ Peattie, pp. 72–76, 152; Stille, p. 13; Goldstein (Jisaburō Ozawa), pp. 76–78
- ^ Peattie, pp. 55–56
- ^ Peattie, p. 56
- ^ a b Lengerer, p. 137
- ^ a b Parshall and Tully, p. 467
- ^ Campbell, pp. 192–193
- ^ Campbell, p. 200
- ^ Peattie, pp. 65, 70, 159; Stille, pp. 15–16; Willmott, p. 415; Parshall and Tully, p. 245
- ^ Hata, pp. 24–25
- ^ Peattie, pp. 103–104
- ^ Hata, p. 25
- ^ Cheung, p. 15
- ^ Hata, pp. 25–26
- ^ Howarth, p. 213
- ^ Gustavsson, Hakans. "Chinese biplane fighter aces – Lu Ji-Chun". Biplane Fighter Aces – China. Retrieved 24 November 2020.
On 7 September three Type 96 (A5M) fighters led by Lt. Igarashi escorted six Type 96 (D1A2) carrier bombers from the Kaga... they were intercepted by a three-aircraft formation of Curtiss Hawk IIIs led by Lt. Lu Ji-chun, Lt. Lai Ming-Tang and Chou Geng-Hsu near Tai Hu. Lu and Chou attacked the bombers and claimed one each... they were then engaged by the A5Ms and tangled with them for half an hour before all breaking off... while Igarashi claimed "three Hawks" and PO1c Handa claiming one, none of the Chinese fighters were actually lost in that engagement.
- ^ a b Hata, p. 26
- ^ Hata, pp. 26–27; Werneth, p. 160; Toland, p. 49
- ^ Gustavsson, Håkan. "Lieutenant (junior grade) Hatsu-o Hidaka". Biplane Fighter Aces from the Second World War. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
- ^ Cheung, p. 65
- ^ Hata, pp. 28, 322, 346, 353, 361, 366, 368
- ^ Toland, p. 49
- ^ Hata, p. 27
- ^ Parshall and Tully, pp. 82, 86, 137–138, and 416; Peattie, pp. 124–125, 147–153; Tully; Stille, pp. 13–14
- ^ Peattie, p. 159
- ^ Parshall and Tully, pp. 85 and 136–145; Peattie, pp. 155–159; Stille, pp. 14–15, 50–51
- ^ a b c Tully
- ^ Zim, p. 153
- ^ Lengerer, p. 174; Stille, p. 19; Werneth, p. 111; Evans and Fuchida, p. 54
- ^ Lengerer, p. 175
- ^ a b Hata, p. 28
- ^ Lengerer, pp. 175–176; Werneth, p. 140
- ^ Lengerer, pp. 176–177, 305–307; Tully; Werneth, p. 140; Gill, p. 590
- ^ Stille, p. 22
- ^ Parshall and Tully, pp. 450–451
- ^ Parshall and Tully, pp. 126, 515; Evans and Fuchida, p. 138; Lundstrom, pp. 330–331
- ^ Parshall and Tully, pp. 151, 154; Stille, p. 59
- ^ Parshall and Tully, pp. 156–159, 508
- ^ Parshall and Tully, p. 180
- ^ Parshall and Tully, pp. 196, 199
- ^ Parshall and Tully, pp. 213–214; Stille, p. 62
- ^ Parshall and Tully, pp. 228, 234–236, 248–250; Stille, pp. 62–63
- ^ Parshall and Tully, pp. 255–256; Willmott, pp. 426–427
- ^ Stille, p. 63
- ^ Parshall and Tully, p. 338; Tully; Werneth, p. 142
- ^ Werneth, p. 121
- ^ Parshall and Tully, p. 476
- ^ Werneth, p. 156
- ^ Parshall and Tully, pp. 386–387
- ^ Fuchida and Okumiya, p. 231
- ^ "IJN Carrier Wreckage- Identification Analysis". Nauticos Corporation. Archived from the original on 5 March 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ "Navy and Industry Collaborate for Historical Find". Nauticos Corporation. 20 February 2001. Archived from the original on 15 December 2010. Retrieved 21 May 2010.
- ^ Parshall and Tully, pp. 491–493
- ^ Sharman, Jon (18 October 2019). "Deep-sea Explorers Find Wreck of Japanese Second World War Aircraft Carrier Sunk in Pivotal Battle of Midway". The Independent. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 21 October 2019.
- ^ Rousselle, Christine, "Undersea video of lost WWII aircraft carriers provides new clues about their dramatic last moments", Fox News, 7 October 2023
References
- ISBN 0-668-04164-1.
- Campbell, John (1985). Naval Weapons of World War Two. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-459-4.
- Cheung, Raymond; Davey, Chris (2015). Aces of the Republic of China Air Force. Aircraft of the Aces. Vol. 126. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4728-0561-4.
- Cressman, Robert J.; Steve Ewing; ISBN 978-0-929521-40-4.
- ISBN 0-87021-316-4.
- OCLC 607018642.
- Gardiner, Robert; Gray, Randal, eds. (1985). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906–1921. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-85177-245-5.
- Gill, G. Hermon (1957). Volume I – Royal Australian Navy, 1939–1942. Australia in the War of 1939–1945, Series 2: Navy (1st ed.). Canberra: Australian War Memorial. Archived from the original on 25 May 2009.
- Goldstein, Donald M.; Dillon, Katherine V., eds. (2004). The Pacific War Papers: Japanese Documents of World War II. ISBN 1-57488-632-0.
- ISBN 0-87021-315-6.
- Howarth, Stephen (1983). The Fighting Ships of the Rising Sun: The Drama of the Imperial Japanese Navy 1895–1945. Fairfield, Pennsylvania: Fairfield Graphics. ISBN 0-689-11402-8.
- Ireland, Bernard (2007). Aircraft Carriers of the World. London: Southwater. ISBN 978-1-84476-363-4.
- Jentschura, Hansgeorg; Jung, Dieter; Mickel, Peter (1977). Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945. ISBN 0-87021-893-X.
- Lengerer, Hans (1982). "Akagi & Kaga". In Roberts, John (ed.). Warship VI. London: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 0-87021-981-2.
- Lundstrom, John B. (2005). The First Team: Pacific Naval Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway (New ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-189-7.
- Parshall, Jonathan; Tully, Anthony (2005). Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books. ISBN 1-57488-923-0.
- ISBN 1-55750-432-6.
- Sakaida, Henry (2002). Aces of the Rising Sun, 1937–1945. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-618-6.
- Stille, Mark (2007). USN Carriers vs IJN Carriers: The Pacific 1942. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84603-248-6.
- ISBN 0-8129-6858-1.
- Tully, Anthony P. (2000). "IJN Kaga: Tabular Record of Movement". Kido Butai. Combinedfleet.com. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
- Nauticos LLC (1999). "IJN Carrier Wreckage- Identification Analysis". nauticos.com. Archived from the original on 17 August 2013. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
- Werneth, Ron (2008). Beyond Pearl Harbor: The Untold Stories of Japan's Naval Airmen. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Military History. ISBN 978-0-7643-2932-6.
- Willmott, H. P. (1983). The Barrier and the Javelin: Japanese and Allied Pacific Strategies, February to June 1942. ISBN 978-1-59114-949-1.
- Zimm, Alan D. (2011). Attack on Pearl Harbor: Strategy, Combat, Myths, Deceptions. Havertown, Pennsylvania: Casemate Publishers. ISBN 978-1-61200-010-7.
Further reading
- Worth, Richard. (2010). "Question 13/46: Catapults on WW II Japanese Aircraft Carriers". Warship International. XLVII (2): 102–03. ISSN 0043-0374.
External links
- Kaga, World War II Database