Kobe

Coordinates: 34°41′24″N 135°11′44″E / 34.69000°N 135.19556°E / 34.69000; 135.19556
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Kobe
神戸市
Kobe City
Port of Kobe
Old Kobe Residency 15th Hall (The Former American Consulate in Kobe)
Hyogo Prefectural Museum of Art
Nankin-machi
Ikuta Shrine
The Former Thomas House
From top left: Kobe Port Tower and Kobe Maritime Museum of the Meriken Park, Old Kobe Residency 15th Hall (The Former American Consulate in Kobe) of Kobe foreign settlement, Hyogo Prefectural Museum of Art, the Chinatown of Nankin-machi, Ikuta Shrine and a view from The Former Thomas House of Kitano-cho
Phone number078-331-8181
Address6-5-1 Kano-chō, Chūō-ku, Kōbe-shi, Hyōgo-ken
650-8570
ClimateCfa
WebsiteCity of Kobe
Symbols
FlowerHydrangea
TreeCamellia sasanqua
Kobe
"Kobe" in new-style (shinjitai) kanji
Japanese name
Hiraganaこうべ
Kyūjitai神戶
Shinjitai神戸

Kobe (

seventh-largest city and the third-largest port city after Tokyo and Yokohama. It is located in the Kansai region, which makes up the southern side of the main island of Honshū, on the north shore of Osaka Bay. It is part of the Keihanshin metropolitan area along with Osaka and Kyoto.[2]
The Kobe city centre is located about 35 km (22 mi) west of Osaka and 70 km (43 mi) southwest of Kyoto.

The earliest written records regarding the region come from the

designated cities
in 1956.

Kobe was one of the cities to open for trade with the

ASICS, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, and Kobe Steel, while over 100 international corporations have their Asian or Japanese headquarters in the city, including Eli Lilly and Company, Procter & Gamble, Boehringer Ingelheim, and Nestlé.[8][9] The city is the point of origin and namesake of Kobe beef, the home of Kobe University, and the site of one of Japan's most famous hot spring resorts, Arima Onsen
.

History

Origins

Tools found in western Kobe demonstrate the area was populated at least from the Jōmon period.[10]

The natural geography of the area, particularly of Wada Cape in

Empress Jingū in AD 201.[3]

Nara and Heian periods

During the

imperial embassies to China were dispatched.[4][10]
The city was briefly the capital of Japan in 1180, when Taira no Kiyomori moved his grandson Emperor Antoku to Fukuhara-kyō in present-day Hyōgo-ku.[10] The Emperor returned to Kyoto after about five months.[4] Shortly thereafter in 1184, the
Taira fortress in Hyōgo-ku and the nearby Ikuta Shrine became the sites of the Genpei War battle of Ichi-no-Tani between the Taira and Minamoto clans
. The Minamoto prevailed, pushing the Taira further.

Kamakura period

As the port grew during the Kamakura period, it became an important hub for trade with China and other countries. In the 13th century, the city came to be known by the name Hyōgo Port (兵庫津, Hyōgo-tsu).[11] During this time, Hyōgo Port, along with northern Osaka, composed the province of Settsu (most of today's Kobe belonged to Settsu except Nishi Ward and Tarumi Ward, which belonged to Harima).

Edo period

Later, during the Edo period, the eastern parts of present-day Kobe came under the jurisdiction of the Amagasaki Domain and the western parts under that of the Akashi Domain, while the center was controlled directly by the Tokugawa shogunate.[12][13] It was not until the abolition of the han system in 1871 and the establishment of the current prefecture system that the area became politically distinct.

  • Gallery
  • Hanakuma Castle
    Hanakuma Castle

Meiji period

Hyōgo Port was opened to foreign trade by the Shogunal government at the same time as Osaka on January 1, 1868, just before the advent of the Boshin War and the Meiji Restoration.[14] At the time of the opening of the city for foreign trade, the area saw intense fighting resulting from the civil war in progress. Shortly after the opening of Kobe to trade, the Kobe Incident occurred, where several western soldiers sustained wounds from gunfire by troops from Bizen. The region has since been identified with the West and many foreign residences from the period remain in Kobe's Kitano area.

  • Gallery
  • Kobe foreign settlement Kaigan-dōri Avenue around 1885
    Kobe foreign settlement Kaigan-dōri Avenue around 1885
  • Shinkaichi theatre street in Kobe (Taisho era)
    Shinkaichi theatre street in Kobe (Taisho era)
  • Hyōgo Port in the 19th century[15]
    Hyōgo Port in the 19th century[15]
  • The Bund, built in the 1860s–1930s
    The Bund, built in the 1860s–1930s
  • Kitano area, built in the 1880s–1910s
    Kitano area, built in the 1880s–1910s
  • Former Hyogo prefectural office, built in 1902
    Former Hyogo prefectural office, built in 1902
  • This nishiki-e (colored woodcut) shows a foreign steamboat entering Hyōgo Port shortly after its opening to the West in the late 19th century.
    This nishiki-e (colored woodcut) shows a foreign steamboat entering Hyōgo Port shortly after its opening to the West in the late 19th century.

Modern era

Kobe, as it is known today, was founded on April 1, 1889, and was

designated on September 1, 1956 by government ordinance. The history of the city is closely tied to that of the Ikuta Shrine, and the name "Kobe" derives from kamube (神戸, later kanbe), an archaic name for those who supported the shrine.[5][6]

During

book by Akiyuki Nosaka on which the film was based. It also features in the motion picture A Boy Called H
.

Following continuous pressure from citizens, on March 18, 1975, the Kobe City Council passed an ordinance banning vessels carrying

On January 17, 1995, a magnitude 6.9 earthquake occurred at 5:46 am JST near the city. About 6,434 people in the city were killed, 212,443 were made homeless, and large parts of the port facilities and other parts of the city were destroyed.[18][19] The earthquake destroyed portions of the Hanshin Expressway, an elevated freeway that dramatically toppled over. In Japan, this earthquake is known as the Great Hanshin earthquake (or the Hanshin-Awaji earthquake). To commemorate Kobe's recovery from it, the city holds an event every December called the Luminarie, where the city center is decorated with illuminated metal archways.

The

busiest container port worldwide (as of 2012
).

Geography

View of Kobe from an airplane

Wedged between the coast and the mountains, the city of Kobe is long and narrow. To the east is the city of Ashiya, while the city of Akashi lies to its west. Other adjacent cities include Takarazuka and Nishinomiya to the east and Sanda and Miki to the north.

The landmark of the port area is the red steel Port Tower. A ferris wheel sits in nearby Harborland, a notable tourist promenade.[citation needed] Two artificial islands, Port Island and Rokkō Island, have been constructed to give the city room to expand.

Away from the seaside at the heart of Kobe lie the

Shin-Kobe Station
to the north.

Mount Rokkō overlooks Kobe at an elevation of 931 m (3,054 ft). During autumn, it is famous for the rich change in colors of its forests.

A panorama of Kobe, its harbor, and Port Island from Kobe Port Tower

Wards

Kobe has nine wards (ku):

  1. Nishi-ku: The westernmost area of Kobe, Nishi-ku overlooks the city of Akashi and is the site of Kobe Gakuin University. This ward has the largest population, with 247,000 residents.[21]
  2. Kita-ku: Kita-ku is the largest ward by area and contains the Rokko Mountain Range, including Mount Rokkō and Mount Maya. The area is well known for its rugged landscape and hiking trails. The onsen resort town of Arima also lies within Kita-ku.
  3. Akashi Kaikyō Bridge, extends from Maiko in Tarumi-ku to Awaji Island
    to the south. A relatively new addition to Kobe, Tarumi-ku was not a part of the city until 1946.
  4. Suma-ku: Suma-ku is the site of Suma beach, attracting visitors during the summer months.
  5. Nagata Shrine
    , one of the three "Great Shrines" in Kobe.
  6. Hyōgo-ku: At various times known as Ōwada Anchorage or Hyōgo Port, this area is the historical heart of the city. Shinkaichi in Hyogo-ku was once the commercial center of Kobe, but was heavily damaged during World War II, and since, Hyogo-ku has lost much of its former prominence.
  7. Chūō-ku: Chūō (中央) literally means "central" and, as such, Chūō-ku is the commercial and entertainment center of Kobe. Sannomiya, Motomachi and Harborland make up the main entertainment areas in Kobe. Chūō-ku includes the city hall and Hyōgo prefectural government offices. Port Island and Kobe Airport lie in the southern part of this ward.
  8. Oji Zoo and Kobe University, Nada is known for its sake. Along with Fushimi in Kyoto, it accounts for 45% of Japan's sake production.[22]
  9. Rokko
    makes up the southern part of this ward.
Wards of Kobe
Place Name Map of Kobe
Rōmaji Kanji Population Land area in km2 Pop. density

per km2

1 Nishi-ku 西区 240,386 138.01 1,742
A map of Kobe's Wards
2 Kita-ku 北区 212,211 240.29 883
3 Tarumi-ku 垂水区 216,337 28.11 7,696
4 Suma-ku 須磨区 158,196 28.93 5,468
5 Nagata-ku 長田区 95,155 11.36 8,376
6 Hyōgo-ku 兵庫区 107,307 14.68 7,310
7 Chūō-ku 中央区 142,232 28.97 4,910
8 Nada-ku 灘区 136,865 32.66 4,191
9 Higashinada-ku 東灘区 214,255 34.02 6,298

Cityscape

Climate

Kobe has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) with hot summers and cool to cold winters. Precipitation is significantly higher in summer than in winter, though on the whole lower than most parts of Honshū, and there is no significant snowfall. The average annual temperature in Kobe is 17.0 °C (62.6 °F). The average annual rainfall is 1,277.8 mm (50.31 in) with July as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 28.6 °C (83.5 °F), and lowest in January, at around 6.2 °C (43.2 °F). The highest temperature ever recorded in Kobe was 38.8 °C (101.8 °F) on August 5, 1994; the coldest temperature ever recorded was −7.2 °C (19.0 °F) on February 27, 1981.

Climate data for Kobe (1991−2020 normals, extremes 1896−present)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 19.2
(66.6)
20.8
(69.4)
23.7
(74.7)
28.5
(83.3)
31.9
(89.4)
36.3
(97.3)
37.7
(99.9)
38.8
(101.8)
35.8
(96.4)
31.9
(89.4)
26.2
(79.2)
23.7
(74.7)
38.8
(101.8)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 9.4
(48.9)
10.1
(50.2)
13.5
(56.3)
18.9
(66.0)
23.6
(74.5)
26.7
(80.1)
30.4
(86.7)
32.2
(90.0)
28.8
(83.8)
23.2
(73.8)
17.5
(63.5)
12.0
(53.6)
20.5
(68.9)
Daily mean °C (°F) 6.2
(43.2)
6.5
(43.7)
9.8
(49.6)
15.0
(59.0)
19.8
(67.6)
23.4
(74.1)
27.1
(80.8)
28.6
(83.5)
25.4
(77.7)
19.8
(67.6)
14.2
(57.6)
8.8
(47.8)
17.0
(62.6)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 3.1
(37.6)
3.4
(38.1)
6.3
(43.3)
11.4
(52.5)
16.5
(61.7)
20.6
(69.1)
24.7
(76.5)
26.1
(79.0)
22.6
(72.7)
16.7
(62.1)
10.9
(51.6)
5.7
(42.3)
14.0
(57.2)
Record low °C (°F) −6.4
(20.5)
−7.2
(19.0)
−5.0
(23.0)
−0.6
(30.9)
3.9
(39.0)
10.0
(50.0)
14.5
(58.1)
16.1
(61.0)
10.5
(50.9)
5.3
(41.5)
−0.2
(31.6)
−4.3
(24.3)
−7.2
(19.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 38.4
(1.51)
55.6
(2.19)
94.2
(3.71)
100.6
(3.96)
134.7
(5.30)
176.7
(6.96)
187.9
(7.40)
103.4
(4.07)
157.2
(6.19)
118.0
(4.65)
62.4
(2.46)
48.7
(1.92)
1,277.8
(50.31)
Average snowfall cm (inches) 0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
1
(0.4)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.5 mm) 6.0 7.1 10.0 10.1 10.4 12.1 10.9 7.4 10.3 8.8 6.4 6.8 106.2
Average
relative humidity
(%)
62 61 61 61 64 72 74 71 67 64 63 62 65
Mean monthly sunshine hours 145.8 142.4 175.8 194.8 202.6 164.0 189.4 229.6 163.9 169.8 152.2 153.2 2,083.7
Source: Japan Meteorological Agency[23]
Climate data for Kobe Airport (2006−2020 normals, extremes 2006−present)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 17.2
(63.0)
19.5
(67.1)
21.3
(70.3)
23.9
(75.0)
30.2
(86.4)
34.5
(94.1)
36.2
(97.2)
36.8
(98.2)
35.2
(95.4)
31.5
(88.7)
24.3
(75.7)
21.9
(71.4)
36.8
(98.2)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 9.3
(48.7)
9.7
(49.5)
12.8
(55.0)
17.3
(63.1)
22.2
(72.0)
25.2
(77.4)
28.6
(83.5)
31.1
(88.0)
28.1
(82.6)
23.0
(73.4)
17.3
(63.1)
11.9
(53.4)
19.7
(67.5)
Daily mean °C (°F) 5.9
(42.6)
6.3
(43.3)
9.2
(48.6)
13.7
(56.7)
18.5
(65.3)
22.2
(72.0)
25.9
(78.6)
27.9
(82.2)
24.9
(76.8)
19.7
(67.5)
14.0
(57.2)
8.5
(47.3)
16.4
(61.5)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 2.4
(36.3)
2.6
(36.7)
5.3
(41.5)
9.9
(49.8)
15.1
(59.2)
19.8
(67.6)
23.9
(75.0)
25.6
(78.1)
22.1
(71.8)
16.7
(62.1)
10.7
(51.3)
5.1
(41.2)
13.2
(55.8)
Record low °C (°F) −3.6
(25.5)
−3.4
(25.9)
−1.5
(29.3)
1.9
(35.4)
7.0
(44.6)
14.2
(57.6)
19.4
(66.9)
20.5
(68.9)
14.7
(58.5)
8.5
(47.3)
2.7
(36.9)
−1.4
(29.5)
−3.6
(25.5)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 33.3
(1.31)
54.3
(2.14)
83.2
(3.28)
83.7
(3.30)
117.6
(4.63)
164.5
(6.48)
186.9
(7.36)
84.7
(3.33)
135.1
(5.32)
106.1
(4.18)
52.8
(2.08)
49.3
(1.94)
1,148.4
(45.21)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 4.6 6.6 8.3 8.8 8.6 9.8 10.2 6.0 8.8 7.9 5.7 5.8 91.1
Source: Japan Meteorological Agency[24][25]

Demographics

Foreigners in Kobe[26]
Nationality Population (2018)
 South Korea 17,175
 Mainland China 13,205
 Vietnam 5,955
 Taiwan 1,309
Others 8,974
Historical population
YearPop.±%
187018,650—    
188048,786+161.6%
1890142,965+193.0%
1900283,839+98.5%
1910398,905+40.5%
1920746,500+87.1%
1925818,619+9.7%
1930915,234+11.8%
19351,058,053+15.6%
19401,134,458+7.2%
1945694,000−38.8%
1950821,062+18.3%
1955986,344+20.1%
19601,113,977+12.9%
19651,216,682+9.2%
19701,288,930+5.9%
19751,360,605+5.6%
19801,367,390+0.5%
19851,410,734+3.2%
19901,477,410+4.7%
19951,423,792−3.6%
20001,493,398+4.9%
20051,525,393+2.1%
20101,544,873+1.3%
20151,537,272−0.5%
20201,521,241−1.0%
The Kobe Metropolitan Employment Area

As of September 2007, Kobe had an estimated population of 1,530,295 making up 658,876 households. This was an increase of 1,347 persons or approximately 0.1% over the previous year. The population density was approximately 2,768 persons per square kilometre, while there are about 90.2 males to every 100 females.[27] About thirteen percent of the population are between the ages of 0 and 14, sixty-seven percent are between 15 and 64, and twenty percent are over the age of 65.[28]

Approximately 44,000 registered foreign nationals live in Kobe. The four most common nationalities are

Chinese (12,516), Vietnamese (1,301), and American (1,280).[28]

Economy

Kobe is the busiest port in the Kansai region.

The

busiest container port in the region, surpassing even Osaka, and the fourth-busiest in Japan.[29]

As of 2004[update], the city's total real

service sector.[28]

The value of

manufactured goods produced and exported from Kobe for 2004 was ¥2.5 trillion. The four largest sectors in terms of value of goods produced are small appliances, food products, transportation equipment, and communication equipment making up over fifty percent of Kobe's manufactured goods. In terms of numbers of employees, food products, small appliances, and transportation equipment make up the three largest sectors.[32]

The

GDP in Kobe Metropolitan Employment Area (2.4 million people) is US$96.0 billion in 2010.[33][34]

Major companies and institutes

Japanese companies which have their headquarters in Kobe include

There are over 100 international corporations that have their East Asian or Japanese headquarters in Kobe. Of these, twenty-four are from China, eighteen from the United States, and nine from Switzerland.

USA, an American aerospace engineering firm established their joint venture in Kobe called Swift Xi Inc.

Kobe is the site of a number of research institutes, such as the

RIKEN Kobe Institute Center for developmental biology and medical imaging techniques,[38] and Advanced Institute for Computational Science (AICS, home of the K supercomputer), the National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (NICT) Advanced ICT Research Institute,[39][40] the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention,[41] and the Asian Disaster Reduction Center.[42]

International organizations include the

Consulate-General of Panama in Kobe is located on the eighth floor of the Moriyama Building in Chūō-ku, Kobe.[43]

Transportation

Kobe Airport
Shin-Kobe Station
Kobe Municipal Subway
Akashi Kaikyō Bridge extends from Kobe to Awaji Island
.

Air

Itami, serves primarily domestic flights throughout Japan, Kobe Airport, built on a reclaimed island south of Port Island, also offers mostly domestic and charter flights, while Kansai International Airport in Osaka
mainly serves international flights in the area.

Rail

The

.

Rokko Island
.

Ropeway

Over

.

Road

Kobe is a transportation hub for a number of

(Osaka – Yamaguchi). The
Akashi Kaikyō Bridge
, the longest suspension bridge in the world.

Maritime

The Port of Kobe is one of Japan's busiest container ports. Sub Area Activity Hanshin of the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Forces provides monitoring across Osaka Bay and Harima Sea.

Education

Kobe University main building

The city of Kobe directly administers 169 elementary and 81 middle schools, with enrollments of approximately 80,200 and 36,000 students, respectively.[45] If the city's four private elementary schools and fourteen private middle schools are included, these figures jump to a total 82,000 elementary school students and 42,300 junior high students enrolled for the 2006 school year.[28][46][47]

Kobe also directly controls six of the city's twenty-five full-time public high schools including

Fukiai High School and Rokkō Island High School. The remainder are administered by the Hyogo Prefectural Board of Education.[45][48] In addition, twenty-five high schools are run privately within the city.[49] The total enrollment for high schools in 2006 was 43,400.[28]

Kobe is home to eighteen public and private universities, including

junior colleges. Students enrolled for 2006 reached 67,000 and 4,100, respectively.[28]
Kobe is also home to 17 Japanese language schools for international students, including the international training group Lexis Japan.

German, Chinese, and Korean. There are three English-language international schools: Canadian Academy, Marist Brothers International School
, and St. Michael's International School.

Culture

Kitano area
of Kobe

Kobe is most famous for its Kobe beef (which is raised in the surrounding Hyōgo Prefecture) and Arima Onsen (hot springs). Notable buildings include the Ikuta Shrine as well as the Kobe Port Tower. Nearby mountains such as Mount Rokkō and Mount Maya overlook the city.

The city is widely associated with cosmopolitanism and fashion, encapsulated in the Japanese saying, "If you can't go to Paris, go to Kobe."[50] The biannual fashion event Kobe Fashion Week, featuring the Kobe Collection, is held in Kobe.[51] The jazz festival "Kobe Jazz Street" has been held every October at jazz clubs and hotels since 1981.[52] It also hosts both a Festival, as well as a statue of Elvis Presley, the unveiling of which was heralded by the presence of former Prime Minister of Japan Junichiro Koizumi. Kobe is well known in Japan as being a city for the affluent, as many high-end stores and mansions line its streets.

Kobe is the site of Japan's first golf course, Kobe Golf Club, established by Arthur Hesketh Groom in 1903,[53] and Japan's first mosque, Kobe Mosque, built in 1935.[54] The city hosts the Kobe Regatta & Athletic Club, founded in 1870 by Alexander Cameron Sim,[55] and a prominent foreign cemetery. A number of Western-style residences – ijinkan (異人館) – from the 19th century still stand in Kitano and elsewhere in Kobe. Museums include the Kobe City Museum and Museum of Literature.

The city headquarters the

professional wrestling promotion Dragongate, established in 2004 as an offshoot of Último Dragón's original Toryumon system.[56]

The dialect spoken in Kobe is called Kobe-ben, a sub-dialect of Kansai dialect.[citation needed]

Sports

Club Sport League Venue Established
Orix Buffaloes Baseball Pacific League
Osaka Dome
1938
Vissel Kobe Football
J. League
1995
INAC Kobe Leonessa Football
L. League
2001
Deução Kobe Futsal
F. League
World Hall 1993
Kobelco Steelers
Rugby
Top League
1928
Hisamitsu Springs Volleyball V.Premier League 1948

Kobe hosted the 1985 Summer Universiade,the 1991 Men's Asian Basketball Championship, which was the qualifier for the 1992 Summer Olympics Basketball Tournament. Kobe was one of the host cities of the

Noevir Stadium Kobe
(then known as Wing Stadium Kobe), which was renovated to increase its capacity to 40,000 for the event. Kobe was one of the host cities for the official
2006 Women's Volleyball World Championship
.

Kobe also hosted the World Darts Federation World Cup in October 2017. The event was held in the Exhibition Hall in Port Island with over 50 countries competing.

International relations

Twin towns – sister cities

Kobe's sister cities are:[57]

Friendship and cooperation cities

Kobe also cooperates with:[57]

A memorandum of understanding on the possible establishment of sister city relations in the future was concluded in 2019 with Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India.[59]

Sister ports

The Port of Kobe's sister ports are:[57]

Gallery

References

  1. ^ "UEA Code Tables". Center for Spatial Information Science, University of Tokyo. Retrieved January 26, 2019.
  2. ^ Gabriele Zanatta (April 13, 2016). "Kobe". la Repubblica (in Italian). p. 48.
  3. ^ a b Ikuta Shrine official website Archived April 4, 2008, at the Wayback Machine – "History of Ikuta Shrine" (Japanese)
  4. ^ a b c Kobe City Info Archived June 16, 2008, at the Wayback Machine – "History". Retrieved February 2, 2007.
  5. ^ a b Nagasaki University Archived May 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine – "Ikuta Shrine". Retrieved February 3, 2007.
  6. ^
  7. ^ American Association of Port Authorities Archived December 21, 2008, at the Wayback Machine – "World Port Rankings 2006". Retrieved April 15, 2008.
  8. ^ a b "Number of foreign corporations with headquarters in Kobe passes 100." (Japanese) in Nikkei Net, retrieved from NIKKEI.net Archived July 6, 2007, at the Wayback Machine on July 3, 2007.
  9. ^ Hyogo-Kobe Investment Guide Archived December 8, 2006, at the Wayback Machine – "List of Foreign Enterprises and Examples". Retrieved February 8, 2007.
  10. ^ a b c City of Kobe Archived September 18, 2007, at the Wayback Machine – "Kobe's History" (Japanese). Retrieved October 22, 2007.
  11. ^ a b Hyogo International Tourism Guide Archived November 30, 2006, at the Wayback Machine – "Hyogo-tsu". Retrieved February 2, 2007.
  12. ^ City of Kobe Archived April 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine – "Old Kobe" (Japanese). Retrieved February 16, 2007.
  13. ^ City of Ashiya Archived June 17, 2008, at the Wayback Machine – "An Outline History of Ashiya". Retrieved February 16, 2007.
  14. .
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Bibliography

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