Ise-class battleship

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Ise at speed, shortly after completion
Class overview
NameIse class
Builders
Operators Imperial Japanese Navy
Preceded byFusō class
Succeeded byNagato class
Built1915–1918
In service1917–1945
Completed2
Lost2
Scrapped2
General characteristics (as built)
Type
Dreadnought battleship
Displacement31,260 long tons (31,762 t) (normal)
Length208.18 m (683 ft)
Beam28.65 m (94 ft)
Draught8.93 m (29 ft 4 in)
Installed power
Propulsion4 × shafts; 2 × steam turbine sets
Speed23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph)
Range9,680 nmi (17,930 km; 11,140 mi) at 14 knots (26 km/h; 16 mph)
Complement1,360
Armament
Armour
General characteristics (after first reconstruction)
Displacement42,001 long tons (42,675 t) (deep load)
Length216 m (708 ft 8 in)
Beam31.75 m (104 ft 2 in)
Draught9.45 m (31 ft)
Installed power
  • 8 × water-tube boilers
  • 80,000 shp (60,000 kW)
Propulsion4 × steam turbines
Speed25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph)
Range7,870 nmi (14,580 km; 9,060 mi) at 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph)
Complement1,376
Armament
  • 6 × twin 35.6 cm guns
  • 16 × single 14 cm guns
  • 4 × twin
    DP guns
  • 10 × twin
    25 mm (1 in)
    AA guns
ArmourDecks: 51–152 mm (2–6 in)
Aircraft carried3
Aviation facilities1 catapult
General characteristics (as hybrid carriers, 1945)
Displacement42,675 long tons (43,360 t) (deep load)
Length219.62 m (720 ft 6 in)
Beam31.71 m (104 ft)
Draught9.03 m (29 ft 8 in)
Range9,500 nmi (17,600 km; 10,900 mi) at 16 knots
Complement1,463
Sensors and
processing systems
Armament
  • 4 × twin 35.6 cm guns
  • 8 × twin 12.7 cm DP guns
  • 31 × triple, 11 × single 25 mm AA guns
  • 6 × 30-round AA rocket launchers
Aircraft carried22
Aviation facilities2 catapults

The Ise-class battleships (伊勢型戦艦, Ise-gata senkan) were a pair of

dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during World War I. Both ships carried supplies for the survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923. They were modernized in 1934–1937 with improvements to their armour and machinery and a rebuilt superstructure in the pagoda mast style. Afterwards they played a minor role in the Second Sino-Japanese War
.

Despite the expensive reconstructions, both vessels were considered obsolete by the eve of the

petrol and other strategic materials to Japan. The sisters were then reduced to reserve until they were sunk during American airstrikes in July. After the war they were scrapped
in 1946–1947.

Background

Office of Naval Intelligence recognition drawing

The design of the Ise-class battleships was shaped both by the ongoing international naval arms race and a desire among Japanese naval planners to maintain a fleet of capital ships powerful enough to defeat the United States Navy in an encounter in Japanese territorial waters.[1] The IJN's fleet of battleships had proven highly successful in 1905, the last year of the Russo-Japanese War, which culminated in the destruction of the Russian Second and Third Pacific Squadrons at the Battle of Tsushima.[2]

In the aftermath, the Japanese Empire immediately turned its focus to the two remaining rivals for imperial dominance in the Pacific Ocean: Britain and the United States.

Eight-Eight Fleet Program, the development of a cohesive battle line of sixteen capital ships.[5]

The launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 by the Royal Navy raised the stakes,[6] and complicated Japan's plans. Displacing 17,900 long tons (18,187 t) and armed with ten 12-inch (30.5 cm) guns, Dreadnought rendered all existing battleships obsolete by comparison.[7] The launch of the battlecruiser HMS Invincible the following year was a further setback for Japan's quest for parity.[8] When the two new Satsuma-class battleships and two Tsukuba-class armoured cruisers, launched by 1911, were outclassed by their British counterparts, the Eight-Eight Fleet Program was restarted.[9]

The first battleships built for the renewed Eight-Eight Fleet Program were the two dreadnoughts of the Kawachi class, ordered in 1907 and laid down in 1908. In 1910, the Navy put forward a request to the Diet (parliament) to secure funding for the entirety of the program at once. Because of economic constraints, only four battlecruisers and a single battleship of the Fusō class were ultimately approved by the Diet. Three more Fusō-class ships (Yamashiro, Ise, and Hyūga) were approved[10] and all three were ordered in April 1913. While Yamashiro was laid down later that year, the IJN lacked the funding to proceed with the construction of Ise and Hyūga until the Diet authorized additional funding for the ships in July 1914.[11]

Design and description

Ise underway during the 1920s

The progress of Fusō's construction, while the IJN waited for the funding to be released and foreign developments, caused the IJN to reassess the Fusō-class design. The distribution of the midships gun turrets was the most obvious flaw as they complicated the protection of the midships

Fukui Shizuo believed that these ships had the worst habitability of any Japanese capital ship. The final design was designated A-92 by the IJN.[12]

The ships had a length of 208.18 metres (683 ft)

deep load.[13] They displaced 31,260 long tons (31,762 t) at normal load and 36,500 long tons (37,086 t) at deep load, roughly 650 long tons (660 t) more than the preceding class. Their crew consisted of 1,360 officers and enlisted men.[14] They had a metacentric height of 1.74 metres (5 ft 9 in) at deep load.[15]

During the ships' modernization during the 1930s, their forward superstructures were enlarged with multiple platforms added to their tripod

torpedo bulges to improve their underwater protection and to compensate for the weight of the additional armour. In addition, their sterns were lengthened by 7.62 metres (25 ft). These changes increased their overall length to 213.8 metres (701 ft), their beam to 31.75 metres (104 ft 2 in) and their draft to 9.45 metres (31 ft).[16] Their displacement increased over 5,000 long tons (5,100 t) to 42,001 long tons (42,675 t) at deep load.[17] The crew now numbered 1,376 officers and enlisted men.[18]

Propulsion

The Ise-class ships had two sets of direct-drive

Kampon Ro Gō water-tube boilers at working pressures of 13–16.9 kg/cm2 (1,275–1,657 kPa; 185–240 psi). Both ships comfortably exceeded their designed speed of 23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph) during their sea trials; Ise reached 23.6 knots (43.7 km/h; 27.2 mph) from 56,498 shp (42,131 kW) and Hyūga exceeded that with 24 knots (44 km/h; 28 mph) from 63,211 shp (47,136 kW).[19] Each of the boilers consumed a mixture of coal and oil and the ships had a stowage capacity of 4,607 long tons (4,681 t) of coal and 1,411 long tons (1,434 t) of fuel oil, which gave them a range of 9,680 nautical miles (17,930 km; 11,140 mi) at a speed of 14 knots (26 km/h; 16 mph).[18] Ise and Hyūga had three generators of 150 kilowatts (200 hp) capacity and two 250-kilowatt (340 hp) turbo generators at 225 volts.[20]

During their 1930s modernization, the boilers on each ship were replaced by eight new Kampon oil-fired boilers, fitted into the former aft boiler room, and the forward funnel was removed.[18] The turbines were replaced by four geared Kampon turbines with a designed output of 80,000 shp (60,000 kW) intended to increase their speed to 24.5 knots (45.4 km/h; 28.2 mph). On her trials, Ise reached a top speed of 25.26 knots (46.78 km/h; 29.07 mph) from 81,050 shp (60,440 kW).[13] The fuel storage of the ships was increased to a total of 5,113 long tons (5,195 t) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 7,870 nautical miles (14,580 km; 9,060 mi) at a speed of 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph).[18]

Armament

The twelve 45-

superfiring turrets. Numbered one through six from front to rear, each turret weighed 655 long tons (666 t). The hydraulically powered turrets had an elevation capability of −5/+20 degrees. The guns had a rate of fire of 1.5–2 rounds per minute and could be loaded at any angle between −3 and +20 degrees. In 1921 the elevation was increased to +30 degrees and then to +43 degrees during their mid-1930s modernization,[21] except for No. 6 turret as its supporting structure could not be lowered. The recoil mechanism of the guns was also changed from a hydraulic to a pneumatic system, which allowed for a faster firing cycle of the main guns.[22]

By World War II, the guns used Type 91

armour-piercing, capped shells. Each of these shells weighed 673.5 kilograms (1,485 lb) and was fired at a muzzle velocity of 770–775 metres per second (2,530–2,540 ft/s). They had a maximum range of 25,000 metres (27,000 yd) at +20 degrees of elevation and 35,450 meters (38,770 yd) at +43 degrees after modernization. Also available was a 625-kilogram (1,378 lb) high-explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 805 metres per second (2,640 ft/s). A special Type 3 Sanshikidan incendiary shrapnel shell was developed in the 1930s for anti-aircraft use.[23]

The ships'

AA guns in single mounts. The 7.62-centimetre (3 in) high-angle guns had a maximum elevation of +75 degrees, and had a rate of fire of 13 to 20 rounds per minute. They fired a 6 kg (13 lb) projectile with a muzzle velocity of 680 m/s (2,200 ft/s) to a maximum height of 7,500 metres (24,600 ft).[26] The ships were also fitted with six submerged 53.3-centimetre (21 in) torpedo tubes, three on each broadside.[27] They carried twelve to eighteen 6th Year Type torpedoes[28] which had a 200-kilogram (440 lb) warhead. They had three settings for range and speed: 15,000 metres (16,000 yd) at 26 knots (48 km/h; 30 mph), 10,000 metres (11,000 yd) at 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph), or 7,000 metres (7,700 yd) at 37 knots (69 km/h; 43 mph).[29]

A twin-gun 127 mm mount on board the battleship Nagato. The mounts used on board the Ise class were the same model.

In 1931–1933 the AA guns were replaced with eight 40-calibre

two-pounder (4-centimetre (1.6 in)) light AA guns were also added.[32] These guns had a maximum elevation of +80 degrees and a rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute.[33] The pair of 14 cm guns on the upper deck were removed at this time.[32]

During the mid-1930s reconstruction, the torpedo tubes were removed and the Vickers two-pounders were replaced by twenty license-built

2.5-centimetre (1 in) Type 96 light AA guns in 10 twin-gun mounts.[32] This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II, but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon. According to historian Mark Stille, the twin and triple mounts "lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets; the gun exhibited excessive vibration; the magazine was too small, and, finally, the gun produced excessive muzzle blast".[34] These guns had an effective range of 1,500–3,000 metres (1,600–3,300 yd), and an effective ceiling of 5,500 metres (18,000 ft) at an elevation of 85 degrees. The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen-round magazines.[35] In addition the forward pair of 14 cm guns in the forecastle were removed at this time and the maximum elevation of the remaining guns was increased to +30 degrees.[32]

Protection

The Ise-class ships'

Vickers cemented armour amidships; below it was a strake of 100 mm (3.9 in) armour. The upper armoured deck consisted of two layers of high-tensile steel 55 mm (2.2 in) thick and the lower armoured deck also consisted of two layers of high-tensile steel, but only 30 mm (1.2 in) thick. The sides of this deck sloped downwards to meet the bottom of the lower strake of the belt armour. The ends of the belt armour were closed off by bulkheads that ranged in thickness from 203 to 102 mm (8 to 4 in).[36] The turrets were protected with an armour thickness of 254 mm (10 in) on the face and 76 mm on the roof.[37] The casemate armour was 149 mm (5.9 in) thick and that of the barbettes was 299 mm thick rather than the originally planned 305 mm. The sides of the conning tower were 305 mm thick.[38][Note 2]

The Ise class were the only Japanese battleships to place the powder magazine above the shell magazine as the IJN wished to put as much space as possible between the highly flammable

double bottom was increased to a total of 3.58 metres (11 ft 9 in) underneath the barbettes and magazines. Additionally, the vessels contained 660 watertight compartments to preserve buoyancy in the event of battle damage.[39] In addition to the torpedo bulge added when the ships were modernized, the deck armour over the machinery and magazines was increased to a total thickness of 140 mm. Inside the original skin of the ships, two torpedo bulkheads were also added[40] and the turret roofs were increased to a total of 152 millimetres (6 in) of armour.[41]

Fire control and sensors

While the details of the ships' fire-control instruments are not fully available, it is known that the ships were fitted with a

Barr & Stroud instruments used on other ships and were removed in 1920. They were replaced by either the British rangefinders or domestically built instruments of 6 or 8 metres (19 ft 8 in or 26 ft 3 in) length. In the late 1920s the fire-control systems were upgraded and additional platforms were added to the foremast to accommodate them. A pair of directors for the 12.7 cm AA guns were added, one on each side of the forward superstructure, in the early 1930s. The fire-control systems were again upgraded in the mid-1930s and directors were added for the 25 mm AA guns.[42] Both ships had 10-metre (32 ft 10 in) rangefinders installed at the top of the pagoda mast at that time. Type 21 air-search radars were installed aboard the sisters in mid-1942.[32]

Aircraft

Ise was briefly fitted with an aircraft flying-off platform for a Mitsubishi 1MF3 fighter on Turret No. 2 in 1927. It was replaced by a platform on Turret No. 5 for a Yokosuka E1Y reconnaissance floatplane in 1928–1929.[43] A catapult and a collapsible 4-tonne (3.9-long-ton) crane were fitted on the stern during the mid-1930s modernization, and the ships were equipped to operate three floatplanes, although no hangar was provided. The initial Nakajima E4N2 biplanes were replaced by Nakajima E8N2 biplanes in 1938.[32]

Conversion to hybrid carriers

An American late-war drawing of the Ise class, showing variations in the reported configuration of the catapults

The sinking of the British capital ships Prince of Wales and Repulse by Japanese land-based aircraft on 10 December 1941 led the IJN to realize that battleships could not operate in the face of enemy aircraft and required friendly air support to protect them. The loss of four Japanese aircraft carriers during the Battle of Midway in June 1942 severely limited the ability of the IJN to provide any air cover and alternatives were sought. Earlier proposals to convert one or more battleships into carriers had been made and rejected at the beginning of the war, but they were revived after Midway. Plans for more elaborate conversions were rejected on the grounds of expense and - more critically - time, and the IJN settled on removing the rear pair of turrets and replacing them with a flight deck equipped with two catapults to launch floatplanes. The Ise-class ships were selected for the conversion because Hyūga had suffered an explosion in Turret No. 5 in early May that virtually destroyed the turret and Turret No. 6 could not elevate to the full +43 degrees deemed necessary for the long-range engagement anticipated by the IJN. The Fusōs were scheduled to follow once the first two were completed.[44]

Armament changes

The rear turrets, the barbettes and their supporting structures were removed beginning in early 1943 and the openings in the middle deck were covered by 152 mm plates salvaged from the turret armour. All of the 14 cm guns were removed and the casemate openings sealed off. Four additional twin 12.7 cm mounts were added, one pair abreast the funnel and the other abreast the conning tower. The original ten twin 25 mm gun mounts were replaced by triple mounts and nine new triple mounts were added, a total of 57 guns. Two each Type 94 and Type 95 AA directors were added to control the additional guns. The ammunition for these new guns was stored in the magazines originally used for the 14 cm guns and for Turret No. 5.

early warning radars were added. In September six 30-round AA rocket launchers were added on the sides of the flight deck.[32]

Flight deck arrangements

A 70-metre-long (229 ft 8 in) flight deck was built above the stern and stretched forward to the rebuilt aft superstructure. The flight deck was 29 metres (95 ft 2 in) wide at its forward end and 13 metres (42 ft 8 in) at the stern. It overhung the stern and increased the overall length of the ships to 219.62 metres (720 ft 6 in). A pair of rotating gunpowder-propelled catapults were fitted on the sides of the hull, forward of the aft superstructure where they partially restricted the arc of fire of the two amidships turrets. They could launch aircraft up to 4,600 kilograms (10,100 lb) in weight and required 30 seconds to launch each aircraft. The flight deck had eight permanent storage positions connected by rails to the catapults and the hydraulically operated aircraft lift that brought the aircraft up from the hangar below on the trolleys used to move the floatplanes about. Two aircraft were intended to be stowed on the catapults and three more in temporary positions on the flight deck for a total of thirteen.[46]

The 40-metre-long (131 ft 3 in) hangar was 20 metres (65 ft 7 in) wide forward and 11 metres (36 ft 1 in) at the rear. It was 6 metres (19 ft 8 in) high and designed to stow nine aircraft. It was fitted with

Petrol storage tanks with a capacity of 76 tonnes (75 long tons) were installed in the former magazine of Turret No. 6 to provide each aircraft with enough fuel for three sorties. To recover the aircraft the collapsible crane formerly on the stern was moved up to the port side of the flight deck. Another crane was intended on the starboard side, but it was never fitted.[47]

The ships had an air group of 11 each of Yokosuka D4Y dive bombers (Allied reporting name "Judy") and Aichi E16A reconnaissance aircraft (Allied reporting name "Paul"). Both aircraft had development problems and neither air group ever had all of its intended aircraft. Coupled with a shortage of trained pilots, neither ship ever used its aircraft during combat.[48]

Other changes

Hyūga running her sea trials on 23 August 1943

After the loss of the

Type 22 surface-search radars were also fitted during the conversion.[32]

The removal of the secondary armament, the rear turrets and their supporting structures was generally compensated by the addition of the flight deck, hangar, AA guns and more fuel, and the metacentric height increased 0.23 metres (9.1 in) to 2.81 metres (9 ft 3 in) at full load as a result of the reduction in the displacement by over 2,000 tonnes (2,000 long tons) to 40,444 tonnes (39,805 long tons). This also reduced the draught to 9.03 metres (29 ft 8 in). The overhang of the flight deck at the stern increased the overall length to 219.62 metres (720 ft 6 in) and the beam was slightly reduced to 31.71 metres (104 ft 0 in).[49]

Ships

Construction data
Ship Kanji Builder [50]
Laid down[50]
 Launched[50] Completed [50] Fate
Ise 伊勢 Kawasaki, Kobe 10 May 1915 2 November 1916 15 December 1917 Scrapped in place, 9 October 1946 – 4 July 1947[43]
Hyūga 日向 Mitsubishi, Nagasaki 6 May 1915 27 January 1917 30 April 1918 Scrapped, 2 July 1946 – 4 July 1947[51]

Service

Upon commissioning, the

Henry Pu-yi, during his state visit to Japan in June 1940. On 15 November the ships were transferred to the 2nd Battleship Division of the 1st Fleet. The sisters were refitted in late 1940 in preparation for war, which included the fitting of external degaussing coils and additional AA directors.[32]

World War II

Ise underway after her modernization

When Japan began the Pacific War on 8 December,

Marcus Island a week earlier. Similarly they pursued but did not catch the American carriers that had launched the Doolittle Raid on 18 April.[52]

During gunnery training on 5 May, there was a premature detonation in the left gun of Hyūga's Turret No. 5 that disabled both guns and killed 51 crewmen. Both aft magazines were flooded to douse the resulting fire and save the ship. She received temporary repairs during which the turret was removed and replaced by a circular armour plate on which three triple 25 mm gun mounts were positioned. On 11 May a valve in Ise's No. 2 engine room stuck in the open position and flooded the engine room. While under repair at Kure, both ships received prototype Type 21 radars.

Operation MI).[53][54]

They returned home on 14 June and the IJN began preliminary planning to replace the lost carriers with hybrid carriers converted from battleships. The sisters were selected for conversion and detached from the division on 14 July in preparation. They remained on "standby alert" until the actual conversions began.[32] Ise was converted at Kure Naval Arsenal from 23 February to 5 September 1943 and Hyūga at Sasebo Naval Arsenal from 2 May to 30 November.[55]

After completing her sea trials, Ise was attached to the

3rd Fleet.[32] The division's 634th Naval Air Group was formed that same day and conducted its first catapult launches in late June.[56]

Battle off Cape Engaño

Ise photographed by American aircraft during the Battle off Cape Engaño

In October 1944, the two ships were involved in the

William Halsey, commander of the Third Fleet decided to mass his carriers in a position to attack the following morning. Ozawa reversed course during the night, correctly believing that the Americans would follow him north.[60]

Although they had lost contact during the night, the Americans did find the Japanese carriers at 07:35. They had already launched an airstrike of 180 aircraft that was orbiting 50 miles (80 km) ahead of the American carriers while waiting for the Japanese ships to be located.

list that was quickly corrected before she was ordered to tow Chiyoda to safety. Her attempt was unsuccessful and Chiyoda had to be abandoned,[32] eventually sunk by additional USN cruiser shellfire and destroyer-launched torpedoes.[62]

Ise was attacked by 80-odd aircraft from the fourth wave, but they failed to inflict any serious damage. She dodged 11 torpedoes and was only hit by a bomb once, on the bulge outboard of the port catapult. Some 34 other bombs near missed her, spraying her with splinters and ruptured some hull plates that contaminated some fuel oil and caused leaks in her port boiler rooms. While an exact total of her casualties is not available, it has been estimated that 5 men were killed and some 111–121 crewmen were wounded during this attack.[43] Hyūga was unsuccessfully attacked by an American submarine at 18:43. Around 19:00 Ozawa learned about a force of destroyers and cruisers that drove off the Japanese destroyers rescuing survivors from some of the carriers lost earlier in the day and sank Chiyoda. He ordered the Fourth Carrier Division to reverse course and engage the Americans, but the battleships were unable to find them, and Ozawa ordered them to reverse course and head for Amami Ōshima. When they arrived on 27 October, Ozawa transferred to Hyūga and hoisted his flag aboard her. While en route for Kure, the division was unsuccessfully attacked by another submarine.[32]

Late war

Ise on fire during the attack on 28 July

In early November the catapults were removed from both ships, and they loaded troops and munitions later that month. While en route they were diverted to the Spratly Islands upon reports of heavy air raids at Manila. After off-loading their cargo, they sailed for Lingga Island, near Singapore, on 20 November. They transferred to Cam Ranh Bay, French Indochina, and Hyūga became flagship of the 5th Fleet there on 14 December. The division sailed for Singapore on 30 December and Vice Admiral Kiyohide Shima transferred his flag to the light cruiser Ōyodo on arrival there the following day. The division continued onwards to Lingga. Its planned return to Japan was delayed by attacks by the American Third Fleet on targets in Indochina and southern China that sank two oil tankers that were intended to refuel the division.[32]

The IJN then decided to use the sisters and their escorts to bring a load of petrol, rubber, tin and other strategic minerals back to Japan after the American carriers departed the

Task Force 58 and Hyūga was hit three times by bombs that killed 37 men and wounded 52. Her gunners claimed to have shot down one American dive bomber during the attack. Ise was hit twice during the attack, but her casualties, if any, are unknown.[32]

The wreck of Hyūga after the July attacks

The ships were turned into

Navy List in November and their wrecks were scrapped after the war.[32]

Notes

  1. QF 12-pounder guns. While the Japanese designated them as 8 cm, their actual calibre was 76.2 mm.[26]
  2. ^ Sources contradict each other regarding the armour scheme of these ships. Lengerer, the most recent researcher using Japanese sources, has been followed rather than older sources.
  3. Hawaiian Standard Time, so in Japan, the attack on Pearl Harbor
    happened on 8 December.

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b Stille, p. 4
  2. ^ Evans & Peattie, p. 124
  3. ^ a b Evans & Peattie, p. 143
  4. ^ Evans & Peattie, p. 150
  5. ^ Stille, p. 7
  6. ^ Evans & Peattie, p. 152
  7. ^ Sandler, p. 90
  8. ^ Evans & Peattie, p. 154
  9. ^ Evans & Peattie, p. 159
  10. ^ Evans & Peattie, pp. 159, 166
  11. ^ Lengerer 2011, pp. 13, 19
  12. ^ Lengerer 2011, pp. 16–17, 19–20, 33–34
  13. ^ a b Lengerer March 2007, p. 9
  14. ^ Jentschura, Jung & Mickel, pp. 25–26
  15. ^ Lengerer 2011, p. 40
  16. ^ Chesneau, p. 171
  17. ^ Lengerer 2009, p. 51
  18. ^ a b c d Jentschura, Jung & Mickel, p. 26
  19. ^ Lengerer 2011, pp. 21–22
  20. ^ Lengerer March 2007, p. 8
  21. ^ Lengerer 2011, pp. 24–26, 30
  22. ^ Lengerer March 2007, pp. 15–17
  23. ^ Campbell, pp. 175, 183
  24. ^ Lengerer 2011, pp. 33–34
  25. ^ Campbell, p. 190
  26. ^ a b Campbell, p. 198
  27. ^ Gardiner & Gray, p. 230
  28. ^ Lengerer 2011, p. 35
  29. ^ Campbell, p. 204
  30. ^ Lengerer March 2007, p. 12
  31. ^ Campbell, pp. 192–93
  32. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Hackett, Kingsepp & Ahlberg, Ise and Hackett & Kingsepp, Hyūga
  33. ^ Campbell, p. 74
  34. ^ Stille, p. 11
  35. ^ Campbell, p. 200
  36. ^ Lengerer 2006, pp. 28–30; Lengerer 2011, p. 36
  37. ^ Lengerer March 2007, p. 16
  38. ^ Lengerer 2006, pp. 28–30
  39. ^ Lengerer 2011, pp. 36, 38
  40. ^ Whitley, pp. 194–95
  41. ^ Lengerer March 2007, p. 17
  42. ^ Lengerer 2011, pp. 28, 30–31, 41
  43. ^ a b c Hackett, Kingsepp & Ahlberg
  44. ^ Lengerer 2009, pp. 39–40
  45. ^ Lengerer 2009, p. 43
  46. ^ Lengerer 2009, pp. 43–44, 50
  47. ^ Lengerer 2009, pp. 45–49
  48. ^ Lengerer 2009, pp. 51–53
  49. ^ a b Lengerer 2009, pp. 43, 49–51
  50. ^ a b c d Whitley, p. 193
  51. ^ Hackett & Kingsepp
  52. ^ Whitley, pp. 197, 199
  53. ^ Rohwer, pp. 168–69
  54. ^ Parshall & Tully, pp. 46, 454
  55. ^ Lengerer 2009, p. 42
  56. ^ Lengerer 2009, pp. 51–52
  57. ^ Lengerer 2009, p. 52
  58. ^ Polmar & Genda, p. 415
  59. ^ Morison 1958, pp. 191, 193.
  60. ^ Polmar & Genda, pp. 427–428
  61. ^ Polmar & Genda, pp. 428–429
  62. ^ Jentschura, Jung & Mickel, p. 57
  63. ^ Blair, pp. 846–49

References

External links

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