Kuomintang Islamic insurgency
Kuomintang Islamic insurgency | |||||||
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Part of the Cross-Strait conflict, the Chinese Civil War, and the Cold War | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Units involved | |||||||
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Casualties and losses | |||||||
Almost all eliminated except for Burmese group | Unknown |
The Kuomintang Islamic insurgency was a continuation of the
Origin
The majority of the insurgents were formal members of Ma Bufang's Republic of China Army (Ma clique). Several of them were prominent generals, such as Ma Hushan, who had earlier fought against the Soviet Union in Xinjiang. Others had fought against the Japanese in the Second Sino-Japanese War, including Muslim General Ma Yuanxiang, who fought under the command of General Ma Biao and was wounded in action at the Battle of Huaiyang where the Japanese were defeated.
Ma Bufang, Ma Hushan, and the other leaders who led the revolt were all former
When Ma Bufang fled after the Ningxia Campaign, he took over $50,000 in military funds and fled to Hong Kong.[1]
Some Hui Muslim Generals and units from Ningxia, like
Han Youwen, an ethnic Salar Muslim, defected to the Communists in Xinjiang and joined the People's Liberation Army. Han Youwen served in the Chinese government until his death in 1998.
The Muslim General Ma Lin's eldest son Ma Burong defected to the Communists after 1949 and donated 10,000 yuan to support Chinese troops in the Korean War. Ma Lin was the uncle of Ma Bufang and Ma Burong was Ma Bufang's cousin. One of Ma Chengxiang's Hui Muslim officers, Ma Funchen (馬輔臣), defected to the Communists.[4][5]
Most former Kuomintang Muslim Generals, like Ma Bufang,
Ma Bufang and Ma Chengxiang's forces were stationed across Qinghai and Xinjiang along with
Conflict
Pro-Nationalist (Kuomintang) Muslim forces were holding out in the northwest and Yunnan at the time of the Communist victory in 1949.[6]
General
The CCP allowed Ma Bufang's loyalists to go free after taking them prisoner in their takeover of Qinghai, to demonstrate humane behaviour. When Ma Bufang's now free loyalists proceeded to take up arms and revolt, this move turned out to be a major blunder. Former Ma Bufang loyalist Salar fighters were led by Han Yimu, a Salar who had been an officer under Ma Bufang. Han led a revolt from 1951 to 1952 and continued to wage guerilla warfare until joining the major revolt of Salars and Qinghai (Amdo) Tibetans against collectivization in 1958, in which he was captured and executed.[12][13][14][15] After a crackdown and restrictions on the Salar population due to the 1950s revolt, the CCP then lifted the restrictions and measures in the 1980s reforms, and then granted amnesty to the majority of the rebels who had been captured and imprisoned.[16] The Qinghai Tibetans view the Tibetans of Central Tibet (Tibet proper, ruled by the Dalai Lamas from Lhasa) as distinct and different from themselves, and even take pride in the fact that they were not ruled by Lhasa ever since the collapse of the Tibetan Empire.[17]
President Chiang Kai-shek continued to make contact with and support the Muslim insurgents in northwest China. Kuomintang planes dropped supplies and arms to the Muslims; there were 14,000 former Muslim troops of Kuomintang Muslim Generals Ma Bufang and Ma Hongkui who were supplied by the Kuomintang, and with U.S. Central Intelligence Agency support. They operated in the Amdo region of Tibet in 1952.[18]
General Ma Hushan, a Kuomintang member and a Muslim, led an insurgency against the PLA from 1950 to 1954 using guerrilla tactics. Prior to this, he had earlier fought against the Soviet Red Army. He was against the Marxist–Leninist indoctrination of the Communist Party, and he killed hundreds of PLA soldiers in guerrilla ambushes in valleys and mountains. He was captured in 1954 and executed at Lanzhou.[19][20]
General Ma Liang, who was related to Ma Bufang, had 2,000 Chinese Muslim troops under his command around Gansu/Qinghai. Chiang Kai-shek sent agents in May 1952 to communicate with him, and Chiang offered him the post of Commander-in-chief of the 103rd Route of the Kuomintang army, which was accepted by Ma. The CIA dropped supplies such as ammunition, radios, and gold at Nagchuka to Ma Liang.[23] Ma Yuanxiang was another Chinese Muslim General related to the Ma family.[24] Ma Yuanxiang and Ma Liang wreaked havoc on the Communist forces. In 1953, Mao Zedong was compelled to take radical action against them.[25] Ma Yuanxiang was then killed by the Communist forces in 1953.[26]
Other insurgencies
Burma
Another group of Kuomintang insurgents were in
After losing mainland China, a group of approximately 12,000 KMT soldiers escaped to Burma and continued launching guerrilla attacks into southern China.
The Republic of China (Taiwan) Ministry of National Defence's Intelligence Bureau employed the pro-Kuomintang Yunnanese Muslim Maj. General Ma Chün-kuo to operate in Burma. General Ma became an important figure in the narcotics trade in the region. A guerrilla force led by him worked with General Li Mi's forces in Burma.[28] Ma Shou-i, a Yunnanese Muslim mapang (militia) leader involved in smuggling and narcotics trafficking, assisted the Kuomintang forces under Li Mi with logistics, since the Communists adopted an anti narcotics policy.[29] Forces under General Ma Chün-kuo conducted their first minor assault on Yunnan in April 1963, and various insignificant raids continued in the following years. General Ma himself admitted that they were not doing much. Most of General Ma's activities consisted of jade and opium smuggling, and not fighting, since there was only sporadic aid and few orders to do anything from Taiwan.[30]
Chinese Hui Muslim merchants in Burma and Thailand assisted the Kuomintang forces in the Burmese opium trade.[31]
Since the 1980s, thousands of Muslims from Myanmar and Thailand have migrated to Taiwan in search of a better life. They are descendants of nationalist soldiers that fled Yunnan when the communists took over mainland China.[32]
Tibet
After the insurgency was defeated, the PLA used Hui soldiers who had served under Ma Bufang to suppress the Tibetan revolt in Amdo.[33]
See also
- Outline of the Chinese Civil War
- Chinese Civil War
- Campaign to Suppress Bandits in Northwestern China
- Campaign at the China–Burma Border
- Kuomintang in Burma
- Chinese nationalism § Chinese Muslims and Uyghurs
References
- ISBN 978-0-674-02616-2. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ United States. Joint Publications Research Service (1984). China report: economic affairs, Issues 92-97. Foreign Broadcast Information Service. p. 34.
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- ^ "怀念马辅臣先生" (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2016-05-08.
- ^ "马辅臣--民族工商业家" (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2012-06-18.
- ISBN 978-0470830215.
- ^ AP (10 Jan 1950). "Chinese Moslem Head Says War Will Go On". The Montreal Gazette.
- ^ "Western Face Lost In Asia". The Manitoba Ensign. 21 Jan 1950.
- ^ a b "Moslems Urged To Resist Russia". Christian Science Monitor. 25 Sep 1951. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ a b "CHINESE ASKS ALL MOSLEMS TO FIGHT REDS". Chicago Daily Tribune. 24 Sep 1951.
- ISBN 0-87332-391-2.)
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- ISSN 0305-7410. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
- ISSN 1449-2490. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
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- ISSN 0305-7410. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
- ISBN 0-7656-0025-0.
- ^ Hao-jan Kao (1960). The Imam's story (6 ed.). Hong Kong: Green Pagoda Press. pp. 95, 97, 106.
- ISBN 0-521-25514-7.
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- ISBN 978-0-415-58264-3. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
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- ISBN 978-0-415-58264-3.
- ^ Steen Ammentorp (2000–2009). "The Generals of WWII Generals from China Ma Yuanxiang". Retrieved 31 October 2010.
- ^ Kaufman, Victor S. "Trouble in the Golden Triangle: The United States, Taiwan and the 93rd Nationalist Division". The China Quarterly. No. 166, Jun., 2001. p.441. Retrieved March 6, 2011.
- ISBN 978-0470830215.
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- ISBN 978-0199717361.
- ^ "Muslims in Taiwan". Government Information Office (ROC). Archived from the original on 2007-01-13.
- ISBN 0-8133-3155-2.