British Hong Kong
Hong Kong 香港 | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1841–1941 1945–1997 1941–1945: Japanese occupation | |||||||||||||
Anthem: Cantonese)[note 1] | |||||||||||||
Religion | |||||||||||||
Monarch | |||||||||||||
• 1841–1901 | Victoria | ||||||||||||
• 1901–1910 | Edward VII | ||||||||||||
• 1910–1936 | George V | ||||||||||||
• 1936 | Edward VIII | ||||||||||||
• 1936–1941, 1945–1952 | George VI | ||||||||||||
• 1952–1997 | Elizabeth II | ||||||||||||
Governor | |||||||||||||
• 1843–1844 | Sir Henry Pottinger (first) | ||||||||||||
• 1992–1997 | Chris Patten (last) | ||||||||||||
Chief Secretary[note 2] | |||||||||||||
• 1843 | George Malcolm (first) | ||||||||||||
• 1993–1997 | Anson Chan (last) | ||||||||||||
Legislature | Legislative Council | ||||||||||||
Historical era | Victorian era to 20th century | ||||||||||||
26 January 1841 | |||||||||||||
29 August 1842 | |||||||||||||
18 October 1860 | |||||||||||||
9 June 1898 | |||||||||||||
25 December 1941 – 30 August 1945 | |||||||||||||
1 July 1997 | |||||||||||||
Population | |||||||||||||
• 1996 estimate | 6,217,556[1] | ||||||||||||
• Density | 5,796/km2 (15,011.6/sq mi) | ||||||||||||
GDP (PPP) | 1996[2] estimate | ||||||||||||
• Total | $154 billion | ||||||||||||
• Per capita | $23,843 | ||||||||||||
GDP (nominal) | 1996[2] estimate | ||||||||||||
• Total | $160 billion | ||||||||||||
• Per capita | $24,698 | ||||||||||||
Gini (1996) | 51.8[3] high | ||||||||||||
HDI (1995) | 0.808[4] very high | ||||||||||||
Currency |
| ||||||||||||
ISO 3166 code | HK | ||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||
Today part of | Hong Kong |
British Hong Kong | |
---|---|
Hanyu Pinyin | Yīngshǔ Xiānggǎng |
Bopomofo | ㄧㄥ ㄕㄨˇ ㄒㄧㄤ ㄍㄤˇ |
Wade–Giles | Ying1-shu3 Hsiang1-kang3 |
Tongyong Pinyin | Ying-shǔ Sianggǎng |
IPA | [íŋ.ʂù ɕjáŋ.kàŋ] |
Yue: Cantonese | |
Yale Romanization | Yīng suhk hēung góng |
Jyutping | jing1 suk6 hoeng1 gong2 |
IPA | [jeŋ˥ sok̚˨ hœːŋ˥ kɔːŋ˧˥] |
Hong Kong was a
The island was ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Nanking, ratified by the Daoguang Emperor in the aftermath of the war of 1842. It was established as a crown colony in 1843. In 1860, the British took the opportunity to expand the colony with the addition of the Kowloon Peninsula after the Second Opium War, while the Qing was embroiled in handling the Taiping Rebellion. With the Qing further weakened after the First Sino-Japanese War, Hong Kong's territory was further extended in 1898 when the British obtained a 99-year lease of the New Territories.
Although the Qing dynasty had to cede Hong Kong Island and Kowloon in perpetuity as per the treaty, the leased New Territories comprised 86.2% of the colony and more than half of the entire colony's population. With the lease nearing its end during the late 20th century, Britain did not see any viable way to administer the colony by dividing it, whilst the
With the signing of the Sino-British Joint Declaration in 1984, which stated that the economic and social systems in Hong Kong would remain relatively unchanged for 50 years, the British government agreed to transfer the entire territory to China upon the expiration of the New Territories lease in 1997 – with Hong Kong becoming a special administrative region (SAR) until at least 2047.[5][6]
History
The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United Kingdom and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (July 2019) |
Colonial establishment
In 1836, the imperial government of the
In September 1839, the
In 1841, Elliot negotiated with Lin's successor,
By 1842, Hong Kong had become the major arms supply port in the Asia-Pacific region.[20]: 5
Growth and expansion
The Treaty of Nanking failed to satisfy British expectations of a major expansion of trade and profit, which led to increasing pressure for a revision of the terms.
In 1898, the British sought to extend Hong Kong for defence. After negotiations began in April 1898, with the British Minister in Beijing,
Japanese occupation
In 1941, during the Second World War, the British reached an agreement with the Chinese government under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek that if Japan attacked Hong Kong, the Chinese National Army would attack the Japanese from the rear to relieve pressure on the British garrison. On 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong began when Japanese air bombers effectively destroyed British air power in one attack.[25] Two days later, the Japanese breached the Gin Drinkers Line in the New Territories. The British commander, Major-General Christopher Maltby, concluded that the island could not be defended for long unless he withdrew his brigade from the mainland. On 18 December, the Japanese crossed Victoria Harbour.[26] By 25 December, organised defence was reduced into pockets of resistance. Maltby recommended a surrender to Governor Sir Mark Young, who accepted his advice to reduce further losses. A day after the invasion, Chiang ordered three corps under General Yu Hanmou to march towards Hong Kong. The plan was to launch a New Year's Day attack on the Japanese in the Canton region, but before the Chinese infantry could attack, the Japanese had broken Hong Kong's defences. The British casualties were 2,232 killed or missing and 2,300 wounded. The Japanese reported 1,996 killed and 6,000 wounded.[27]
The Japanese soldiers committed atrocities, including rape, on many locals.[28] The population fell in half, from 1.6 million in 1941 to 750,000 at war's end because of fleeing refugees; they returned in 1945.[29]
The Japanese imprisoned the ruling British colonial elite and sought to win over the local merchant gentry by appointments to advisory councils and neighbourhood watch groups. The policy worked well for Japan and produced extensive collaboration from both the elite and the middle class, with far less terror than in other Chinese cities. Hong Kong was transformed into a Japanese colony, with Japanese businesses replacing the British. However, the Japanese Empire had severe logistical difficulties and by 1943 the food supply for Hong Kong was problematic. The overlords became more brutal and corrupt, and the Chinese gentry became disenchanted. With the surrender of Japan, the transition back to British rule was smooth, for on the mainland the
Restoration of British rule
On 14 August 1945, when Japan announced its unconditional surrender, the British formed a naval task group to sail towards Hong Kong.[31] On 1 September, Rear-Admiral Cecil Harcourt proclaimed a military administration with himself as its head. He formally accepted the Japanese surrender on 16 September in Government House.[32] Young, upon his return as governor in May 1946, pursued political reform known as the "Young Plan", believing that, to counter the Chinese government's determination to recover Hong Kong, it was necessary to give local inhabitants a greater stake in the territory by widening the political franchise to include them.[33] Hong Kong remained a part of the UK and overseas colonies from 1949 until it transitioned its colony to a British dependent territory in 1983.
Transfer of sovereignty
The Sino-British Joint Declaration was signed by both the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the Premier of the People's Republic of China on 19 December 1984 in Beijing. The Declaration entered into force with the exchange of instruments of ratification on 27 May 1985 and was registered by the People's Republic of China and United Kingdom governments at the United Nations on 12 June 1985. In the Joint Declaration, the People's Republic of China Government stated that it had decided to resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong (including Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories) with effect from 1 July 1997 and the United Kingdom Government declared that it would relinquish Hong Kong to the PRC with effect from 1 July 1997. In the document, the People's Republic of China Government also declared its basic policies regarding Hong Kong.[34]
In accordance with the
The
Representing China were the CCP General Secretary and President of China, Jiang Zemin; Premier of China, Li Peng; and Tung Chee-hwa, the first Chief Executive of Hong Kong. This event was broadcast on television and radio stations across the world.
Government
Hong Kong was a Crown colony of the United Kingdom and maintained an administration roughly modelled after the Westminster system. The Letters Patent formed the constitutional basis of the colonial government and the Royal Instructions detailed how the territory should be governed and organised.
The
The Executive Council determined administrative policy changes and considered primary legislation before passing it to the Legislative Council for approval. This advisory body also itself issued secondary legislation under a limited set of colonial ordinances. The Legislative Council debated proposed legislation and was responsible for the appropriation of public funds. This chamber was reformed in the last years of colonial rule to introduce more democratic representation.[35] Indirectly elected functional constituency seats were introduced in 1985 and popularly elected geographical constituency seats in 1991. Further electoral reform in 1994 effectively made the legislature broadly representative. The administrative Civil Service was led by the Colonial Secretary (later Chief Secretary), who was deputy to the Governor.[35]
The judicial system was based on English law, with Chinese customary law taking a secondary role in civil cases involving Chinese residents.[36] The Supreme Court of Hong Kong was the highest court and ruled on all civil and criminal cases in the colony. During the early colonial period, extraterritorial appellate cases from other regions of China involving British subjects were also tried in this court. Further appeals from the Supreme Court were heard by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which exercised final adjudication over the entire British Empire.[37]
In March 1975 the Hong Kong government introduced a programme to measure public opinion of government efforts, known as Movement of Opinion Direction (MOOD).[38]
Cadets
In 1861, Governor Sir Hercules Robinson introduced the Hong Kong Cadetship, which recruited young graduates from Britain to learn Cantonese and written Chinese for two years, before deploying them on a fast track to the Civil Service. Cadet officers gradually formed the backbone of the civil administration. After the Second World War, ethnic Chinese were allowed into the service, followed by women. Cadets were renamed Administrative Officers in the 1950s, and they remained the elite of the Civil Service during British rule.[39]
Military
Prior to and during the
After the Second World War and the end of the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the British military reestablished a presence. As a result of the Chinese Civil War, the British Army raised the 40th Infantry Division and dispatched it to garrison Hong Kong. It later left for combat in the Korean War, and the defense of the territory was taken up by additional British forces who were rotated from Europe. The garrison was further supplemented by LEPs, and Gurkhas. The latter came from Nepal, but formed part of the British Army. The size of the garrison during the Cold War fluctuated and ended up being based around one brigade.
The Royal Hong Kong Regiment, a military unit which was part of the Hong Kong Government, was trained and organised along the lines of a British Territorial Army unit. As such, it was supported by British Army regular personnel holding key positions. These British Army personnel, for their duration of service to the Royal Hong Kong Regiment, were seconded to the Hong Kong Government. In the post-WWII era, the majority of the regiment's members were local citizens of Chinese descent.
Economy
The stability, security, and predictability of British law and government enabled Hong Kong to flourish as a centre for international trade.[40] In the colony's first decade, the revenue from the opium trade was a key source of government funds. The importance of opium reduced over time, but the colonial government was dependent on its revenues until the Japanese occupation in 1941.[40] Although the largest businesses in the early colony were operated by British, American, and other expatriates, Chinese workers provided the bulk of the manpower to build a new port city.[41]
By the late 1980s, many ethnic Chinese people had become major business figures in Hong Kong. Amongst these billionaires was Sir Li Ka-shing, who had become one of the colony's wealthiest people by this time.
Culture
Hong Kong is characterised as a hybrid of East and West. Traditional Chinese values emphasising family and education blend with Western ideals, including economic liberty and the rule of law.[42] Although the vast majority of the population is ethnically Chinese, Hong Kong has developed a distinct identity. The territory diverged from the mainland through its long period of colonial administration and a different pace of economic, social, and cultural development. Mainstream culture is derived from immigrants originating from various parts of China. This was influenced by British-style education, a separate political system, and the territory's rapid development during the late 20th century.[43][44] Most migrants of that era fled poverty and war, reflected in the prevailing attitude toward wealth; Hongkongers tend to link self-image and decision-making to material benefits.[45][46] Residents' sense of local identity has markedly increased post-handover: The majority of the population (52%) identifies as "Hongkongers", while 11% describe themselves as "Chinese". The remaining population purport mixed identities, 23% as "Hongkonger in China" and 12% as "Chinese in Hong Kong".[47]
Traditional Chinese family values, including family honour, filial piety, and a preference for sons, are prevalent.[48] Nuclear families are the most common households, although multi-generational and extended families are not unusual.[49] In British-ruled Hong Kong, polygamy was legal until 1971 pursuant to the colonial practice of not interfering in local customs that British authorities viewed as relatively harmless to the public order.[50]
Spiritual concepts such as feng shui are observed; large-scale construction projects often hire consultants to ensure proper building positioning and layout. The degree of its adherence to feng shui is believed to determine the success of a business. Bagua mirrors are regularly used to deflect evil spirits,[51] and buildings often lack floor numbers with a 4;[52] the number has a similar sound to the word for "die" in Cantonese.[53]
Besides, the cultural integration can also be found in everyday life in Hong Kong. For example, British English is a common second language and also one of the official languages in British Hong Kong since the establishment of the colony.[54] Moreover, British English is also taught in primary and secondary schools.[55] For the metro system, the metro lines are named after places instead of numbered, unlike Mainland China, where metro lines are numbered. Roads were named after British royals, governors, famous people, cities and towns across the UK and the Commonwealth, as well as Chinese cities and places. Aside from Chinese New Year, Christmas is celebrated as the second-most important festival. In literature, some idioms in Cantonese are directly translated from those in English. A Mandarin Chinese speaker may recognise the words but not understand the meaning.
Cuisine
Food in Hong Kong is primarily based on
Cinema
Film making in Hong Kong began as early as 1909, but Hong Kong was not a film making hub until the late 1940s, when a wave of Shanghai filmmakers migrated to the territory; these movie veterans helped build the colony's entertainment industry over the next decade.
Music
Western classical music has historically had a strong presence in Hong Kong and remains a large part of local musical education.[68] The publicly funded Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra, the territory's oldest professional symphony orchestra, frequently hosts musicians and conductors from overseas. The Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra, composed of classical Chinese instruments, is the leading Chinese ensemble and plays a significant role in promoting traditional music in the community.[69]
Sport and recreation
Despite its small area, the territory regularly hosts the Hong Kong Sevens, Hong Kong Marathon, Hong Kong Tennis Classic and Lunar New Year Cup, and hosted the inaugural AFC Asian Cup and the 1995 Dynasty Cup.[70][71]
Hong Kong represents itself separately from mainland China, with its own sports teams in international competitions. The territory has participated in almost every Summer Olympics since 1952 and has earned four medals. Lee Lai-shan won the territory's first Olympic gold medal at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics,[72] and Cheung Ka Long won the second one in Tokyo 2020.[73] Hong Kong athletes have won 126 medals at the Paralympic Games and 17 at the Commonwealth Games. No longer part of the Commonwealth of Nations, the city's last appearance in the latter was in 1994.[74]
Dragon boat races originated as a religious ceremony conducted during the annual Tuen Ng Festival. The race was revived as a modern sport as part of the Tourism Board's efforts to promote Hong Kong's image abroad. The first modern competition was organised in 1976, and overseas teams began competing in the first international race in 1993.[75]
The Hong Kong Jockey Club, the territory's largest taxpayer,[76] has a monopoly on gambling and provides over 7% of government revenue.[77] Three forms of gambling are legal in Hong Kong: lotteries, horse racing, and football.[76]
Dissent
During China's turbulent 20th century, Hong Kong served as a safe haven for dissidents, political refugees, and officials who lost power. British policy allowed dissidents to live in Hong Kong as long as they did not break local laws or harm British interests. The implementation of this policy varied according to what the senior officials thought constituted British interests and the state of relations with China.
Steve Tsang, director of the China Institute of the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London, wrote that it was "ironic" that despite Hong Kong being a symbol of China's humiliation by Britain, there was not one major movement started by the Chinese residents of the colony for its retrocession to China, even though there had been several upsurges of Chinese nationalism.[81] He explained:
In the 1920s, the working class Chinese of Hong Kong did not have a good reason to rally around the Hong Kong government, and they were more susceptible to appeals based on Chinese nationalism. Consequently, the call of the Communists was basically heeded by the working men, and their actions practically paralysed the colony for a year. By the [end of the] 1960s, however, the attempts by the Hong Kong government to maintain stability and good order which helped improve everyone's living conditions, and ... the beginning of the emergence of a Hong Kong identity, changed the attitude of the local Chinese. They overwhelmingly rallied around the colonial British regime.[82]
See also
- Emperor of India
- British Military Hospital
- British Education
- Royal Hong Kong Regiment
- Political Department
- Flags of Elizabeth II
- British Forces Overseas Hong Kong
- Commander British Forces in Hong Kong
Notes
- ^ No specific variety of Chinese was listed in legislation, but Cantonese was the de facto standard as it was the native variety of the colony; Chinese was made official in 1974.
- ^ The office of Colonial Secretary was renamed to Chief Secretary in 1976.
References
Citations
- Census and Statistics Department. December 1996. Archived(PDF) from the original on 13 October 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
- ^ a b "Hong Kong". International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
- ^ Gini Coefficient Fact Sheet (PDF) (Report). Legislative Council. December 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
- ^ Hong Kong (PDF). Human Development Report 2016 (Report). United Nations Development Programme. 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 July 2017. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
- ^ A Draft Agreement Between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the People's Republic of China on the Future of Hong Kong (1984). pp. 1, 8.
- ^ "The Joint Declaration". Constitutional and Mainland Affairs Bureau – The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China. 1 July 2007. Archived from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
- ^ Cowell, Adrian (1997). The Opium Kings. PBS Frontline. Archived from the original on 23 September 2006. Retrieved 16 May 2007.
- ISBN 978-0-19-262955-5.
- ^ Paul L. Schiff Jr. (2002). "Opium and its alkaloids". American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. Archived from the original on 21 October 2007. Retrieved 8 May 2007.
- ISBN 978-0-415-19918-6.
- ^ Carl A. Trocki (2002). "Opium as a commodity and the Chinese drug plague" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2008. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
- ^ a b Tsang 2004, pp. 9–10.
- ^ a b Tsang 2004, p. 11.
- ^ Tsang 2004, p. 21.
- ^ Welsh 1997.
- ^ The Chinese Repository. Volume 10. pp. 63–64.
- ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 11, 21.
- ^ Belcher, Edward (1843). Narrative of a Voyage Round the World. Volume 2. London: Henry Colburn. p. 148.
- ^ Tsang 2004, p. 12.
- ISBN 978-1-4780-1121-7.
- ^ Tsang 2004, p. 29.
- ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 33, 35.
- ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 38–41.
- ^ Tsang 2004, p. 121.
- ^ Tsang 2004, p. 122.
- ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 123–124.
- ^ Snow 2004, p. 81.
- ^ Tsai, Jung-Fang (2005). "Wartime Experience, Collective Memories, and Hong Kong Identity". China Review International 12 (1): 229.
- ^ Zhang, Wei-Bin (2006). Hong Kong: The Pearl Made of British Mastery and Chinese Docile-Diligence. Nova Publishers. p. 109.
- ^ Tsang 2004, p. 133.
- ^ Tsang 2004, p. 138.
- ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 143–144.
- Office of the Commissioner of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. 15 November 2000. Archived from the original on 13 March 2007. Retrieved 19 November 2020.on September 24, 1982. The Chinese Premier had held talks with her before this meeting. And Chinese leaders formally informed the British side that the Chinese Government had decided to recover all of the Hong Kong region in 1997. Also, China offered assurances that it would initiate special policies after recovering Hong Kong.
Deng Xiaoping met with Mrs. Thatcher
- ^ a b c d Hong Kong Government (July 1984). Green Paper: The Further Development of Representative Government in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Government Printer.
- JSTOR 759499.
- SSRN 2533284.
- S2CID 150104890.
- ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 25–26.
- ^ a b Tsang 2004, p. 57.
- ^ Tsang 2004, p. 58.
- ^ Carroll 2007, p. 169.
- ^ Carroll 2007, pp. 167–172.
- ^ He 2013.
- ^ Tam 2017.
- ^ Lam 2015.
- ^ "HKU POP releases survey on Hong Kong people's ethnic identity and the 2018 review and 2019 forecast survey". Public Opinion Programme, University of Hong Kong. 27 December 2018. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
- ^ Family Survey 2013, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Population By-Census 2016, p. 77.
- OCLC 1292532755.
- ^ Fowler & Fowler 2008, p. 263.
- ^ Xi & Ingham 2003, p. 181.
- ^ Chan & Chow 2006, p. 3.
- ^ "Hong Kong Basic Law: Chapter I". Hong Kong Basic Law. Archived from the original on 23 November 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2008.
- ^ "English language education". Archived from the original on 2 February 2022. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
- ^ a b Long 2015, p. 271.
- ^ Curry & Hanstedt 2014, pp. 9–12.
- ^ Long 2015, p. 272.
- ^ Fu 2008, pp. 381, 388–389.
- ^ Carroll 2007, p. 148.
- ^ Carroll 2007, p. 168.
- ^ Ge 2017.
- ^ Chu 2017, pp. 1–9, 24–25.
- ^ Chu 2017, pp. 77–85.
- ^ Chu 2017, pp. 107–116.
- ^ Chu 2017, pp. 9–10.
- ^ Chu 2017, pp. 159–164.
- ^ Smith et al. 2017, p. 101
- ^ Ho 2011, p. 147.
- ^ Ghoshal 2011.
- ^ Horne & Manzenreiter 2002, p. 128.
- ^ Lam & Chang 2005, p. 141.
- ^ Shum, Michael; Chow, Carine (27 July 2021). "FENCE-TASTIC! Cheung Ka-long wins gold for HK". The Standard. Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
- ^ Lam & Chang 2005, p. 99.
- ^ Sofield & Sivan 2003.
- ^ a b Littlewood 2010, pp. 16–17.
- ^ Inland Revenue Annual Report 2017, p. 4
- ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Cheung, Gary Ka-wai (2009). Hong Kong's Watershed: The 1967 Riots. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
- ^ Cheung, Gary (10 June 2016). "When the Cultural Revolution spilled over into riots in Hong Kong – and changed lives forever Archived 12 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 10 July 2018.
- ^ Tsang 1995, p. 1.
- ^ Tsang 1995, p. 246.
Sources
- Carroll, John M. (2007). A concise history of Hong Kong. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-3422-3.
- Chan, Cecilia; Chow, Amy (2006). Death, Dying and Bereavement: a Hong Kong Chinese Experience. ISBN 978-962-209-787-2. Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
- Chu, Yiu-wai (2017). Hong Kong Cantopop: A Concise History. ISBN 978-988-8390-58-8. Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
- Curry, Janel; Hanstedt, Paul (2014). Reading Hong Kong, Reading Ourselves. City University of Hong Kong Press. ISBN 978-962-937-235-4. Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
- Fowler, Jeaneane D.; Fowler, Merv (2008). Chinese Religions: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-84519-172-6. Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
- Fu, Poshek (2008). "Japanese Occupation, Shanghai Exiles, and Postwar Hong Kong Cinema". The China Quarterly. 194 (194): 380–394. S2CID 154730809.
- Ge, Celine (28 July 2017). "It's fade out for Hong Kong's film industry as China moves into the spotlight". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 29 May 2018. Retrieved 28 May 2018.
- Ghoshal, Amoy (1 July 2011). "Asian Cup: Know Your History – Part One (1956–1988)". Goal. Archived from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2018.
- He, Huifeng (13 January 2013). "Forgotten stories of the great escape to Hong Kong". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
- Ho, Wai-chung (2011). School Music Education and Social Change in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. ISBN 978-90-04-18917-1. Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
- Horne, John; Manzenreiter, Wolfram (2002). Japan, Korea and the 2002 World Cup. ISBN 978-0-415-27563-7.
- Lam, Wai-man (2015). Understanding the Political Culture of Hong Kong: The Paradox of Activism and Depoliticization: The Paradox of Activism and Depoliticization. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-45301-7. Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
- Lam, S.F.; Chang, Julian W. (2005). The Quest for Gold: Fifty Years of Amateur Sports in Hong Kong, 1947–1997. ISBN 978-962-209-765-0.
- Littlewood, Michael (2010). Taxation Without Representation: The History of Hong Kong's Troublingly Successful Tax System. ISBN 978-962-209-099-6. Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
- Long, Lucy M. (2015). Ethnic American Food Today: A Cultural Encyclopedia. ISBN 978-1-4422-2730-9. Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
- Smith, Gareth Dylan; Moir, Zack; Brennan, Matt; Rambarran, Shara; Kirkman, Phil (2017). The Routledge Research Companion to Popular Music Education. ISBN 978-1-4724-6498-9. Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
- Snow, Philip (2004), The Fall of Hong Kong: Britain, China and the Japanese Occupation, ISBN 0300103735.
- Sofield, Trevor H.B.; Sivan, Atara (2003). "From Cultural Festival to International Sport – The Hong Kong Dragon Boat Races". Journal of Sport & Tourism. 8 (1): 9–20. S2CID 144106613.
- Tam, Luisa (11 September 2017). "Self-centred, demanding, materialistic and arrogant: how to steer clear of the Kong Girls". South China Morning Post. Hong Kong. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
- ISBN 962-209-392-2.
- ISBN 978-1-84511-419-0.
- ISBN 9780006388715
- Xi, Xu; Ingham, Mike (2003). City Voices: Hong Kong writing in English, 1945–present. ISBN 978-962-209-605-9. Archivedfrom the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
- Annual Report 2016–17 (PDF) (Report). Inland Revenue Department. 2017.
- Family Survey 2013 (PDF) (Report). Legislative Council. July 2014.
- Main Results (PDF). 2016 Population By-Census (Report). Census and Statistics Department. 2016.
Further reading
- Clayton, Adam (2003). Hong Kong Since 1945: An Economic and Social History.
- OCLC 632495979.
- Lui, Adam Yuen-chung (1990). Forts and Pirates – A History of Hong Kong. Hong Kong History Society. p. 114. ISBN 962-7489-01-8.
- Liu, Shuyong; Wang, Wenjiong; Chang, Mingyu (1997). An Outline History of Hong Kong. ISBN 978-7-119-01946-8.
- Ngo, Tak-Wing (1999). Hong Kong's History: State and Society Under Colonial Rule. Routledge. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-415-20868-0.
- ISBN 978-1-56836-002-7.
- Chan, Ming K. (September 1997). "The Legacy of the British Administration of Hong Kong: A View from Hong Kong". JSTOR 655254.
External links
- "Official website of the British Hong Kong Government". Archived from the original on 24 December 1996. Retrieved 2013-03-26.