Art of Mathura
Art forms of India |
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The Art of Mathura refers to a particular school of
Chronologically, Mathuran sculpture becomes prominent after
The art of Mathura is often contrasted with the
Mathura continued to be an important centre for sculpture until Gupta art of the 4th to 6th centuries, if not beyond. After this time much of the sculpture was of Hindu figures.
History
Early history
Some very early depictions of deities seem to appear in the art of the
Most of the early finds at Mathura correspond to what is called the "second period of urbanization" in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, after a gap of about a thousand years following the collapse of the
Mauryan period
Mathura seems to have been a comparatively unimportant city of central northern
Terracotta figurines (4th-2nd century BCE)
Although no stone sculpture or architecture from the Mauryan period are known in Mathura, some relatively high quality terracotta statuettes have been recovered from the Mauryan strata in excavations.[18] This would suggest that there was some level of artistic creation at Mathura during the period of the Maurya Empire.[18] The creation of terracotta figurines is thought to have been much easier than sculpting stone, and therefore became the mainstream form of artistic expression.[19] In Mathura, the first statuette were found in strata dating to the late 4th-2nd centuries BCE, and their production, together with associated terracotta miniatures of votive tanks and shrines, seems to have continued for close to a thousand years.[20]
Terracottas generally showed what appears to be female deities or mother goddesses, and from the 2nd century women in elaborate headdress.
Several figures of foreigners also appear in the terracottas from the 4th and 3rd century BCE, which are either described simply as "foreigners" or Persian or Iranian because of their foreign features.[22][23][24] These figurines might reflect the increased contacts of Indians with Iranian people during this period.[23] Several of these seem to represent foreign soldiers who visited India during the Mauryan period and influenced modellers in Mathura with their peculiar ethnic features and uniforms.[25] One of the terracotta statuettes, a man nicknamed the "Persian nobleman" and dated to the 2nd century BCE, can be seen wearing a coat, scarf, trousers and a turban.[26][27][28][22]
Terracotta figurine production evolved with the adoption of moulds in the 3rd-2nd century BCE.[29][19]
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Terracotta figurine, Mathura, 4th century BCE
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Terracotta female coiffure, Mathura, 2nd century BCE
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"Persian Nobleman clad in coat dupatta trouser and turban", Mathura, c. 2nd Century BCE.[22]
Early depictions of Indian deities (190-180 BCE)
The anthropomorphic depiction of various deities apparently started to appear in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE.
Before the introduction of stone sculpture, there may have been an older tradition of using clay or wood to represent Indian deities, which, because of their inherent fragility, have not survived.
The "earliest unambiguous" images of these deities, is an indirect testimony appearing with the coinage of the
The depictions of Indian deities, as witnessed by the Indo-Greeks transferred on their coinage, are generally thought to refer to Balarama-Samkarshana and Vāsudeva-Krishna, shown together with their rather unambiguous attributes, especially the
A dancing goddess in Indian dress also appears on the coinage of Agathocles and Pantaleon, and she is often interpreted as Lakshmi.[32] According to Harry Falk, such acts of devotion towards foreign gods, as can also be seen in the dedication of the Heliodorus pillar, was a logical practice for the Greeks, in order to appropriate the power of local deties: it "should not be regarded as a "conversion" to Hinduism, but rather as the result of a search for the most helpful local powers, upholding own traditions in a foreign garb."[41]
Early stone sculpture in Mathura (180-70 BCE)
The period after 180 BCE has generally been called the "Sunga period", from the name of the Hindu
Following the demise of the Mauryan Empire and its replacement by the
Stone art and architecture began being produced at Mathura at the time of "Indo-Greek hegemony" over the region.
150-100 BCE
"Mathura sculpture is distinguished by several qualitative features of art, culture and religious history. The geographical position of the city on the highway leading from the Madhyadesa towards Madra-Gandhara contributed in a large measure to the eclectic nature of its culture. Mathura became the meeting ground of the traditions of the early Indian art of Bharhut and Sanchi together with strong influences of the Iranian and the Indo-Bactrian or the Gandhara art from the North-West. The Persepolitan capitals with human-headed animal figures and volutes as well as the presence of the battlement motif as a decorative element point to Iranian affinities. These influences came partly as a result of the general saturation of foreign motifs in early Indian sculpture as found in the Stupas of Bharhut and Sanchi also."
— Vasudeva Shrarana Agrawala, Masterpieces of Mathura sculpture[58]
The art of Mathura became extremely influential over the rest of India, and was "the most prominent artistic production center from the second century BCE".
Colossal anthropomorphic statues (2nd century BCE)
Some of the earliest works of art of the Mathura school are the
In the 2nd century BCE, Yakshas became the focus of the creation of colossal cultic images, typically around 2 meters or more in height, which are considered as probably the first Indian anthropomorphic productions in stone.
Some
In the production of colossal Yaksha statues carved in the round, which can be found in several locations in northern India, the art of Mathura is considered as the most advanced in quality and quantity during this period.[73] In later periods, from the turn of the millennium, Yashkas and Nagas evolved from being benevolent, powerful deities at the center of worship, to becoming frightening demonic creatures acting as subsidiary attendants in the major religions of Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism.[65] They also became much smaller in size as they were dethroned by the new religions, suggesting the continuation of a cult at the domestic level.[65]
Simple reliefs (circa 150-100 BCE)
Various reliefs in a style similar to those of
The "Mehrauli Yakshi", one of the highest quality work among early sculpture, was found in Mehrauli in the cultural area of Mathura.[81] The high-relief and skillfully carved sculpture shows a female nature divinity, called a Yakshini, holding on the branches of a tree in the Salabhanjika pose, with a long double braid of hair descending down to the girdle.[75][81] The sculpture probably used to adorn the railing of a sacred site, such as a Stupa.[81] She is dated to 150 BCE, and prefigures by more than a century the Salabhanjika Yakshinis of Sanchi.[82][75][81] It is at the same time one of the most artistically beautiful and earliest of the Yakshi sculptures, with detailed patterning contrasting with the smoothness of the skin, standing at the beginning of a long tradition of Yashi sculptures in Mathura and India as a whole.[81] There are many similarities with the Yakshis found in Bharhut, although the Mehrauli Yakshi has rounder volumes, characteristic of the Mathura style and technical proficiency in carving.[81]
Some other sculpted figures also are dated to circa 150 BCE, due to their similarity with equivalent figures in Bharhut. This is the case of a male Chauri-bearer with its sharp lines and stiff expression, held at the Mathura Museum.
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Crossbar medallion with elephant and riders, Gayatri Tila, Mathura, circa 150 BCE.[85]
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Crossbar with female head in lotus medallion, circa 2nd Century BCE, Mathura.[88]
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Buddhist railing withWheel of Law. 1st century BCE
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Railing crossbars, 2nd-1st century BCE.
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Crossbar medallion with horse rider. 2nd-1st century BCE.
Complex narrative reliefs (circa 100 BCE)
By 100 BCE, the reliefs represent more complex scenes, defining, according to Sonya Rhie Quintanilla, an age of "iconic diversification and narrative maturation", as shown by the
Several of these reliefs are the first known examples of
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The Katra architrave, possibly representingLinga, Mathura, circa 100 BCE[97]
Indo-Scythian period (circa 60 BCE–90 CE)
From around 70 BCE, the region of Mathura fell to the
End of 1st century BCE
Some works of art dated to the end of the 1st century BCE show very delicate workmanship, such as the sculptures of Yakshis.
The fact that the Mathura lion capital is inscribed in
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Yakshi with onlookers, dated 20 BCE.[107]
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Yakshi with onlookers (detail), dated 20 BCE.
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Yakshi with onlookers (detail), dated 20 BCE.
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Yakshi with onlookers (detail), dated 20 BCE.
Mathura sculpture styles in the 1st century CE
The abundance of dedicatory inscriptions in the name of
In-the-round statuary
Several examples of in-the-round statuary have been found from the period of Sodasa, such as the torsos of "Vrishni heroes", discovered in Mora, about 7 kilometers west of Mathura.[118] These statues are mentioned in the Mora Well Inscription nearby, made in the name of the Northern Satraps Sodasa circa 15 CE, in which they are called Bhagavatam.[119][120][121] The statue fragments are thought to represent some of the five Vrishni heroes, possibly ancient kings of Mathura later assimilated to Vishnu and his avatars,[114][122] or, equally possible, the five Jain heroes led by Akrūra, which are well attested in Jain texts.[118] In fact, the cult of the Vrishnis may have been cross-sectarian, much like the cult of the Yakshas.[118]
The two uninscribed male torsos that were discovered are both of high craftsmanship and in Indian style and costume.[122] They are bare-chested but wear a thick necklace, as well as heavy hearrings.[118] The two torsos that were found are similar with minor variations, suggesting they may have been part of a series, which is coherent with the Vrishni interpretation.[116] They share some sculptural characteristics with the Yaksha statues found in Mathura and dating to the 2nd and 1st century BCE, such as the sculpting in the round, or the clothing style, but the actual details of style and workmanship clearly belong to the time of Sodasa.[118][114] The Vrishni statues also are not of the colossal type, as they would only have stood about 1.22 meters complete.[118] The Mora Vrishnis function as an artistic benchmark for in-the-round statues of the period.[118]
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1st Jaina Tirthankara Rishabhanatha torso - Circa 1st Century
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Four-fold Jain image withSuparshvanath and three other Tirthankaras- Circa 1st Century CE
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Goat-headed Jain Mother Goddess, circa 1st Century CE
Jain reliefs
Many of the sculptures from this period are related to the
Jain votive plates, called "Ayagapatas", are numerous, and some of the earliest ones have been dated to circa 50-20 BCE.[124] They were probably prototypes for the first known Mathura images of the Buddha.[125] Many of them were found around the Kankali Tila Jain stupa in Mathura.
Notable among the design motifs in the ayagapatas are the pillar capitals displaying "Persian-Achaemenian" style, with side volutes, flame palmettes, and recumbent lions or winged sphinxes.[126][127]
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Jain votive plaque with Jain stupa, the "Vasu Śilāpaṭa" ayagapata, 1st century CE, excavated from Kankali Tila, Mathura.[131]
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ardhaphalaka sect. Early 1st century CE.[132]
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Jain decorated tympanum from Kankali Tila, Mathura, 15 CE.[133]
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Sivayasa Ayagapata, with Jain stupa fragment, Kankali Tila, 75-100 CE.
Grapevine and garland designs (circa 15 CE)
A decorated doorjamb, the
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TheMathura Museum, GMM 13.367[117]
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Reliefs of theMora doorjamb with grapevine design, Mora, near Mathura, circa 15 CE. State Museum Lucknow, SML J.526.[117] Similar scroll designs are known from Gandhara, from Pataliputra, and from Greco-Roman art.
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.
Calligraphy (end 1st century BCE - 1st century CE)
The calligraphy of the Brahmi script had remained virtually unchanged from the time of the Maurya Empire to the end of the 1st century BCE.[143] The Indo-Scythians, following their establishment in northern India introduced "revolutionary changes" in the way Brahmi was written.[143] In the 1st century BCE, the shape of Brahmi characters became more angular, and the vertical segments of letters were equalized, a phenomenon which is clearly visible in coin legends and made the script visually more similarly to Greek.[143] In this new typeface, the letter were "neat and well-formed".[143] The probable introduction of ink and pen writing, with the characteristic thickenned start of each stroke generated by the usage of ink, was reproduced in the calligraphy of stone inscriptions by the creation of a triangle-shaped form at the beginning of each stroke.[143][146] This new writing style is particularly visible in the numerous dedicatory inscriptions made in Mathura, in association with devotional works of art.[143] This new calligraphy of the Brahmi script was adopted in the rest of the subcontinent of the next half century.[143] The "new-pen-style" initiated a rapid evolution of the script from the 1st century CE, with regional variations starting to emerge.[143]
First images of the Buddha (from circa 15 CE)
From around the 2nd-1st century BCE at Bharhut and Sanchi, scenes of the life of the Buddha, or sometimes of his previous lives, had been illustrated without showing the Buddha himself, except for some of his symbols such as the empty throne, or the Chankrama pathway.[148] This artistic device ended with the sudden appearance of the Buddha, probably rather simultaneously in Gandhara and Mathura, at the turn of the millennium.[148]
Possibly the first known representation of the Buddha (the
It is thought that the images of Jain saints, which can be seen in Mathura from the 1st century BCE, were prototypes for the first Mathura images of the Buddha, since the attitudes are very similar, and the almost transparent very thin garment of the Buddha not much different visually from the nakedness of the
There has been a recurring debate about the exact identity of these Mathura statues, some claiming that they are only statues of
Other reliefs
The Buddhist "Indrasala architrave", dated 50-100 CE, with a scene of the Buddha at the Indrasala Cave being attended by Indra, and a scene of devotion to the Bodhi Tree on the other side, is another example of the still hesitant handling of the human icon of the Buddha in the Buddhist art of Mathura.[154] The Buddhist character of this architrave is clearly demonstrated by the depiction of the Bodhi Tree inside its specially built temple at Bodh Gaya, a regular scene of Buddhism since the reliefs of Bharhut and Sanchi.[154] The depiction of the Buddha in meditation in the Indrasala Cave is also characteristically Buddhist.[154] The Buddha already has the attributes, if not the style, of the later "Kapardin" statues, except for the absence of a halo.[3]
Vedic deities
Besides the hero cult of the
Early "Kapardin" statuary (end of 1st century CE)
The earliest types of "Kapardin" statuary (named after the "kapardin", the characteristic tuft of coiled hair of the Buddha) showing the Buddha with attendants are thought to be pre-Kushan, dating to the time of the "Kshatrapas" or Northern Satraps.[3] Various broken bases of Buddha statues with inscriptions have been attributed to the Kshatrapas.[3] A fragment of such a stele was found with the mention of the name of the donor as a "Kshatrapa lady" named Naṃda who dedicated the Bodhisattva image "for the welfare and happiness of all sentient beings for the acceptance of the Sarvastivadas", and it is considered as contemporary with the famous "Katra stele".[3][158]
One of these early examples shows the Buddha being worshipped by the Gods Brahma and Indra.[3]
The famous "Katra Bodhisattava stele" is the only fully intact image of a "Kapardin" Bodhisattva remaining from the Kshatrapa period, and is considered as the foundation type of the "Kapardin" Buddha imagery, and is the "classical statement of the type".[3]
In conclusion, the canonical type of the seated Bodhisattva with attendants commonly known as the "Kapardin" type, seems to have developed during the time the
Kushan period (ca. 90–300 CE)
Mathura became part of the
Dynastic art of the Kushans in Mathura
The Kushans vigorously promoted royal portraiture, as can be seen in their dynastic sculptures from
To some extent, as the Kushans progressively adapted to life in India, their dress progressively became lighter, and representation less frontal and more natural, although they generally retained characteristic elements of their nomadic dress, such as the trousers and boots, the heavy tunics, and heavy belts.
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Monumental statue of Vima Kadphises, 1st century CE, Mathura Museum
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Statue of the Saka PrinceChastana, with costume details. 2nd century CE. Mathura Museum
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Kushan devotee, Mathura Museum
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Saka or Kushan Prince in pointed cap. Mathura Museum
"Kapardin" Bodhisattva statuary (2nd century CE)
("Year 4 of the Great King Kanishka")
Buddhism and Buddhist art are already gained prominence in Mathura during the 1st century CE under the patronage of the Northern Satraps.[167] The Kushans adopted the anthropomorphic image of the Buddha, and developed it into a standardized mode of representation, using "confident and powerful imagery" on a grand scale.[168]
The early representation of the Buddha by the Kushans are those of the "Kapardin" Bodhisattva type, "Kapardin" referring to the coiled hair tuft on top of his head.[169] The Buddha is shown with his appearance after Renunciation from princely life, after having abandoned his turban and his jewellery, but before enlightenment and Buddhahood, as he is only wearing a regular shawl and a dhoti, rather than the later "samghati" monastic dress.[169] When inscribed, these statues invariably mention the "Bodhisattva" rather than the Buddha, except for one or two very rare examples.[169] It is thought that the focus on Bodhisattva images may have been in conformity with an ancient Buddhist prohibition against showing the Buddha himself in human form, otherwise known as aniconism in Buddhism, expressed in the Sarvastivada vinaya (rules of the early Buddhist school of the Sarvastivada): ""Since it is not permitted to make an image of the Buddha's body, I pray that the Buddha will grant that I can make an image of the attendant Bodhisattva. Is that acceptable?" The Buddha answered: "You may make an image of the Bodhisattava"".[152]
Statues of the "Kapardin" type inscribed with dates range from the year 2 of
The style of these statues is somewhat reminiscent of the earlier monumental Yaksha statues, usually dated to a few centuries earlier. On the contrary, despite other known instances of Hellenistic influence on Indian art, very little in Hellenistic style, if anything at all, can be seen in this type of statue. Especially the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara seems to have had little to no influence.[171]
Apart from the seated Buddha triads of Mathura, several seated Buddha triads in an elaborate style are also known from Gandhara, which also belong to the early Kushan period, such as the Brussels Buddha which may be dated to the year 5 of Kanishka.[172][173]
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The coiled tuft of hair, known as "Kapardin".[169]
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Standing Buddha of the "Kapardin" type. Early Kushan period.
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Type of the Brussels Buddha, a similar Buddhist triad from Gandhara, probably also dating to the year 5 of Kanishka.
Buddha coinage (Circa 130 CE)
From his capital of Mathura or alternatively from the capital of his territories of the northwest,
Only six Kushan coins of the Buddha are known in gold (the sixth one is the centerpiece of an ancient piece of jewellery, consisting of a Kanishka Buddha coin decorated with a ring of heart-shaped ruby stones). All these coins were minted in gold under Kanishka I, and are in two different denominations: a
Kanishka also issued other types of Buddhist coinage, representation a "Shakyamuni Buddha" standing and walking, as well as a seated "Maitreya Buddha". It should be noted however that Maitreya is a
Buddha statues in "Samghati" monastic dress (mid-2nd century onward)
The last known inscribed "Kapardin Bodhisattava" statue is dated to the year 39 of the era started by Kanishka (166 CE).[169] From around that time, the art of Mathura adopted the image of the Buddha with the monastic robe covering both shoulders, a likely derivation from the art of Gandhara.[169] Statues from the art of Gandhara, dating to the 1st-2nd century CE, have been found in Mathura, such as the Saptarishi Tila statue, suggesting they may have influenced local art.[175][176]
When inscribed, these standing statues mention the "Buddha" rather than the "Bodhisattva".[169] Several are dated to the 2nd century CE, and became the prevalent Buddha type, displaying characteristics which would later be seen in Gupta art, especially with the ever thinner monastic dress seemingly sticking to the body of the Buddha.[169] These statues of the Buddha display characteristics and attitudes seen in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara: the head of the Buddha is surrounded by a halo, the clothing covers both shoulders, the left hand hold the gown of the Buddha while the other hand form an Abbhiya mudra, and the folds in the clothing are more typical of the Gandharan styles.[177][169]
In many respect, the standing Buddha of Mathura seems to be a combination of the local sculptural tradition initiated by the Yakshas with the Hellenistic designs of the Buddhas from the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.[177]
From this period, the quality of the sculptures starts to decrease, possibly owing to the progressive decline of the Kushan Empire.[169]
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"Maholi Buddha": an early experiment with the "Samghati" type, using a checkered design, circa 150 CE.[178]
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The Buddha in checkered monastic dress in the "Subjugation of Nalagiri", Bhutesvara Yakshis, 2nd century CE, Mathura.
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"Anyor Buddha" in Gandhara style, with inscription "year 51" (178 CE). Mathura.[179]
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"Buddha Refuses Anupama", late Kushan.
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The Buddha in meditation, late Kushan. Mathura.
First known Mahayana inscriptions and sculptures (153 CE)
The earliest known inscription related to the
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Bodhisattva Maitreya (water bottle on left thigh), Mathura, 2nd century CE.
Ornate Bodhisattvas (2nd-4th century CE)
A later type of ornate Bodhisattvas is known, seen in seated or standing statuary, which seems closely related to the
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Ornate Bodhisattva with inscription of "Year 28 of Kushan KingVasishka".[187]
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Bejewelled Bodhisattva, 3rd–early 4th century.[188]
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BodhisattvaAvalokitesvara holding lotus flower.[186]
Other sculptural works
The Mathura sculptures incorporate many Hellenistic elements, such as the general idealistic realism, and key design elements such as the curly hair, and folded garment:
"The second strong element of Mathura art is the free use of the Hellenistic motifs and themes; e.g, the
Nemean Lion, the Eagle of Zeus and the Rape of Ganymede, were strictly classical subjects but rendered in Mathura art with admirable insight and freedom."— Vasudeva Shrarana Agrawala, Masterpieces of Mathura sculpture.[58]
Specific Mathuran adaptations tend to reflect warmer climatic conditions, as they consist in a higher fluidity of the clothing, which progressively tend to cover only one shoulder instead of both. Also, facial types also tend to become more Indianized. Banerjee in Hellenism in ancient India describes "the mixed character of the Mathura School in which we find on the one hand, a direct continuation of the old Indian art of
In some cases however, a clear influence from the art of Gandhara can also be felt, as in the case of the Hellenistic statue of
The numerous Bacchanalian scenes with wine drinking and amorous carrousal[
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Bacchanalianscene. Mathura
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A Mathura relief showing the complete life of the Buddha, from birth to death. The clothing is Gandharan. 2nd Century CE
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TheHerakles strangling the Nemean lion discovered in Mathura. For a recent photograph see [1]. Early 2nd century CE.[201][202]
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Bhutesvara Yakshis, Mathura ca. 2nd century CE. On the reverse are sculpted scenes of the life of the Buddha, wearing the monastic dress.
Hindu art at Mathura under the Kushans
"The four emanations"
Hindu art found its first inspiration in the Buddhist art of Mathura. The three Vedic gods Indra, Brahma and Surya were actually first depicted in Buddhist sculpture from the 2nd-1st century BCE, as attendants in scenes commemorating the life of the Buddha, even when the Buddha himself was not yet shown in human form but only through his symbols, such as the scenes of his Birth, his Descent from the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, or his retreat in the Indrasala Cave.[156] During the time of the Kushans, Hindu art progressively incorporated a profusion of original Hindu stylistic and symbolic elements, in contrast with the general balance and simplicity of Buddhist art. The differences appear in iconography rather than in style.[208] It is generally considered that it is in Mathura, during the time of the Kushans, that the Brahmanical deities were given their standard form:
"To a great extent it is in the visual rendering of the various gods and goddesses of theistic Brahmanism that the Mathura artist displayed his ingenuity and inventiveness at their best. Along with almost all the major cult icons Visnu, Siva, Surya, Sakti and Ganapati, a number of subsidiary deities of the faith were given tangible form in Indian art here for the first time in an organized manner. In view of this and for the variety and multiplicity of devotional images then made, the history of Mathura during the first three centuries of the Christian era, which coincided with the rule of the Kusanas, can very well be called revolutionary in the development of Brahmanical sculpture"
— Pran Gopal Paul and Debjani Paul, in Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations[209]
Cult images of Vāsudeva
Cult images of
A few triads are known from Mathura, dated to the 1st-2nd century CE, showing Vāsudeva and Saṃkarṣaṇa with their attributes, together with a female standing in the middle, thought to be Ekanamsha.[213][214]
Some sculptures during this period suggest that the "Vyūha doctrine" (Vyūhavāda, "Doctrine of the emanations") was starting to emerge, as images of "
Absence of Gopala-Krishna life scenes
On the other hands, reliefs depicting the life story of Krishna, the Krishna-lilas scenes, are extremely rare or possibly inexistent during the Kushan period:
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Sun GodIndo-Scythian dress, also revered in Buddhism, 2nd century CE, Kankali Tila.[219]
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Linga worshipped by Indo-Scythian,[220]or Kushan devotees, 2nd century CE.
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War GodKarttikeya and Fire God Agni, Kushan Period, 1st century CE
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The Hindu God Shiva, 3rd century CE. Mathura or Ahichchhatra.[221]
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Kushan-era image ofVishakha, c. 2nd century CE
Jain art at Mathura under the Kushans
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Parshvanatha, Kushan Period
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Goat-faced GodHarinaigamesha, Kushan Period, Mathura
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Jain god of Childbirth Naigamesha, 1st-3rd century CE.[223]
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Jina in Meditation, Kushan Period, Mathura
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Tirthankara Head, Kushan Period, Mathura
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Tirthankara Head, Kushan Period, Mathura
Gupta Empire period (4–6th century)
Following the decline of the Kushan Empire and the occupation of northern India by the
The art of Mathura continued to become more sophisticated during the Gupta Empire, between the 4th and 6th centuries CE. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta period (4th to 6th century CE) to reach a very high fineness of execution and delicacy in the modeling, displaying calm and serenity.[226] The style becomes elegant and refined, with a very delicate rendering of the draping and a sort of radiance reinforced by the usage of pink sandstone.[226] Artistic details tend to be less realistic, as seen in the symbolic shell-like curls used to render the hairstyle of the Buddha, and the ornate halos around the head of the Buddhas.[226] The art of the Gupta is often considered as the pinnacle of Indian Buddhist art, achieving a beautiful rendering of the Buddhist ideal.[226]
Gupta art is also characterized by an expansion of the Buddhist pantheon, with a high importance given to the Buddha himself and to new deities, including
The Gupta art of Mathura was very influential throughout northern India, accompanied by a reducing of foreign influences.[225][226] It was also extremely influential in the development of Buddhist art almost everywhere in the rest of Asia.
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Standing Buddha, late 5th century
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Standing Buddha, Gupta dynasty, 320–485, Mathura
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Standing Buddha, inscribed Gupta Era year 115 (434 CE), Mathura.[227]
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Head of a Buddha, 6th century.
Hindu art at Mathura under the Guptas
(5th century CE)
Under the
Development of the iconography of Vishnu
Until the 4th century CE, the worship of
Other statues of Vishnu show him as three-headed (possibly with an implied fourth head in the back), the
A further variation is Vishnu as three-headed cosmic creator, the Visnu Visvarupa, showing Vishnu with a human head, again flanked by the muzzle of a boar the head of a lion, but with a multitude of beings on his aureole, symbol of the numerous creations and emanations resulting from his creative power.[210] These sculptures can be dated to the 5th century CE.[210]
Incorporation of Lakshmi
In the 3rd-4th century CE,
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Pillar recording the installation of Shiva Lingas in the "year 61" (380 CE) during the rule of Chandragupta II.[232][228]
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Vishnu Caturanana ("Four-Armed"), 5th century, Mathura
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Bust of Brahma, Circa 6th Century CE
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Vishnu, gupta period, mathura
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Narasimha, early 6th century,Mathura
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Trivikrama("Three strides") Vishnu, Mathura, Gupta period.
Jain art under the Guptas
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Seated Jain Tirthankara, circa 5th Century CE, Mathura.
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Chaumkha,LACMA, circa 6th Century CE
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Rishabhanatha, circa 6th Century CE
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Parshvanatha, circa 6th Century CE
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Colossal Head of Jina, Gupta Period, Jain temple of Kankali Tila
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Chaumkha,Mathura Museum, circa 6th Century CE
Decline with the invasion of the Alchon Huns (6th century CE)
The decline of the
"Towards the middle of the 6th century, the activity of the Mathura school abruptly ceased, undoubtedly following the ravages of the Huns who had invaded the Gupta empire around 455. It must have died with the art of Gandhara under the persecutions by Mihirakula."
— Henri Parmentier, La sculpture de Mathurâ[233]
Medieval period (7th–16th century)
The Medieval period followed, in which Hindu art became largely prevalent in the art of Mathura and India as a whole. It was accompanied by the decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent.
In many ways, Gupta art had represented the zenith of the art of Mathura, with its beautiful and elegant creations.[235] In the Medieval period, efforts were made at emulating Gupta art, but the technical level in sculpture decreased significantly.[235] Many of the qualities found in Gupta art start to vanish during this period, such as the spituality of the sculptures, their elegant slimness and suppleness.[236] As the country disintegrated, so did the arts, the artistic rendering becoming coarse, formal and stereotyped.[236] Some decadent effects are obtained by the increase in ornament, the enlargement of crowns, the multiplication of arms and the profusion of attendant deities.[236] The rendering of the human figure becomes rather artificial and highly stylized, relying heavily on the curbed Tribhanga pose.[236]
Hindu art in the Medieval period
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Balarama from Mathura, Early Medieval period (8th-13th century CE).
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Sarvatobhadra Shiva Linga Representing Brahma Vishnu Maheshwar and Surya, Circa 9th Century CE
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Architectural Fragment with Divine Figures, circa 10th century CE
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Decorative Door Jamb - Medieval Period
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Durga, Medieval Period
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Fire God, Medieval Period
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Four-armed Seated Vishnu in Meditation, Mediaeval Period
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Standing Surya, Medieval Period
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Standing Twin Vishnu, Circa 10th Century CE
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Ten-armed Ganesha, Medieval Period
Jain art in the Medieval period
Jain art continued to be quite active during the period, with several known and dated works of art.[237]
-
1st Jain Tirthankara Rishabhanatha, Circa 8th Century CE, Barsana
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Ambika, Medieval Period
-
Jain GoddessChakreshwari, Kankali Mound, Circa 10th Century CE
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Jain TirthankaraParshwanath, inscribed 1014 CE, Kagarol
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Jain Tirthankara Neminath, Circa 12th Century CE
Sack of Mathura by Mahmud of Ghazni (1018 CE)
In 1018,
Despite the destructions, some level of artistic production continued afterward, as some Jain statues for example are dated to several decades after the 1018 sack of the city.[237]
Early modern to modern period (16th–21st century)
The art of Mathura in the Early modern period was going through a lower period of activity, with comparatively fewer remaining works of art.
-
Balarama, circa 18th Century CE
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Krishna Lifting Govardhan Mound, circa 19th Century CE
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Lakshmi Narayan Seated on Garuda - Bronze - Circa 18th Century CE
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Lord Krishna Killing to Kaliyanaga Demon, Bronze, Modern Age
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Man Milking Cow with Calf, Bronze, Modern Age
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Stupa, Bronze, Modern Age
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Kartikeya, Modern Period
See also
- Indian art
- Architecture of India
- Indo-Greek art
- Gupta art
- Mauryan art
- Kushan art
- Hoysala architecture
- Vijayanagara architecture
- Greco-Buddhist art
- Chola art and architecture
- Pallava art and architecture
- Badami Chalukya architecture
References
- ^ JSTOR 3249969.
- ^ Annual report 1909-10. ASI. pp. 63–65.
- ^ JSTOR 3249969.
- ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5.
- JSTOR 29756891.
- ^ a b Srinivasan, 4
- JSTOR 29756891.
- ^ ISBN 9780691185385.
- ^ JSTOR 29756891.
- JSTOR 29756891.
We should do well to remember that the Aryans worshipped purely the elementary forces of nature by means of elaborate sacrifices, together with appropriate hymns. In this scheme of ritual it was not necessary, nor was it possible to substitute the object of exaltation so convincingly by any concrete form, least of all by human figure, without compromising the fundamental attitude of the worshipper to the all-pervasive power that was being propitiated. Such a change in the approach of the tightly-knit Vedic and even post-Vedic society, orchestrated as it was by orthodox priesthood, could not have come of itself. This was possible when such an urge was actually felt by the general masses and that feeling was intensified by the ideological impact of fresh ethnic influx into the Indian social pool.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-215-0565-9.
These are ample reasons to believe that the aniconism of early Buddhist art was rooted in Vedism in which the highest Gods were conceived as impersonal forces and amūrta, without form.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-470-75196-1.
- ^ ISBN 9789004155374.
- ISBN 9789004155374.
- ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-09924-1.
- ^ "Votive Female Figurine". The Walters Art Museum.
- ^ ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ ISBN 9780391022348.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
- ISBN 9788173051159.
- ^ ISBN 9788170994107.
- ^ a b "Iranian Heads From Mathura, some terracotta male-heads were recovered, which portray the Iranian people with whom the Indians came into closer contact during the fourth and third centuries B.C. Agrawala calls them the representatives of Iranian people because their facial features present foreign ethnic affinities." Srivastava, Surendra Kumar (1996). Terracotta art in northern India. Parimal Publications. p. 81.
- ^ "Mathura has also yielded a special class of terracotta heads in which the facial features present foreign ethnic affinities." Dhavalikar, Madhukar Keshav (1977). Masterpieces of Indian Terracottas. Taraporevala. p. 23.
- ^ "Soldier heads. During the Mauryan period, the military activity was more evidenced in the public life. Possibly, foreign soldiers frequently visited India and attracted Indian modellers with their ethnic features and uncommon uniform. From Mathura in Uttar Pradesh and Basarh in Bihar, some terracotta heads have been reported, which represent soldiers. Artistically, the Basarh terracotta soldier-heads are better, executed than those from Mathura." in Srivastava, Surendra Kumar (1996). Terracotta art in northern India. Parimal Publications. p. 82.
- ISBN 9788170994107.
- ^ "The figure of a Persian youth (35.2556) wearing coat, scarf, trousers and turban is a rare item." Museum, Mathura Archaeological (1971). Mathura Museum Introduction: A Pictorial Guide Book. Archaeological Museum. p. 14.
- ^ Sharma, Ramesh Chandra (1994). The Splendour of Mathurā Art and Museum. D.K. Printworld. p. 58.[permanent dead link]
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- ^ a b c d Gupta, Vinay K. (January 2019). "Vrishnis in Ancient Literature and Art". Indology's Pulse Arts in Context, Doris Meth Srinivasan Festschrift Volume, Eds. Corinna Wessels Mevissen and Gerd Mevissen with Assistance of Vinay Kumar Gupta: 70–72.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
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- ^ ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
- ^ a b "The folk art typifies an older plastic tradition in clay and wood which was now put in stone, as seen in the massive Yaksha statuary which are also of exceptional value as models of subsequent divine images and human figures." in Agrawala, Vasudeva Sharana (1965). Indian Art: A history of Indian art from the earliest times up to the third century A. D. Prithivi Prakashan. p. 84.
- ^ Bopearachchi, Osmund (2017). "Achaemenids and Mauryans: Emergence of Coins and Plastic Arts in India". India and Iran in the Long Durée: 15.
- ^ ISBN 9780836415896.
- ^ a b c Osmund Bopearachchi, 2016, Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence
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- ^ Falk, Harry. Greek style dedications. p. 40.
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- ^ Published in "L'Indo-Grec Menandre ou Paul Demieville revisite," Journal Asiatique 281 (1993) p.113
- ^ "Some Newly Discovered Inscriptions from Mathura : The Meghera Well Stone Inscription of Yavanarajya Year 160 Recently a stone inscription was acquired in the Government Museum, Mathura." India's ancient past, Shankar Goyal Book Enclave, 2004, p.189
- ^ ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ Indian Numismatic Studies K. D. Bajpai, Abhinav Publications, 2004, p.105 [2]
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- ^ a b Agrawala, Vasudeva S. (1965). Masterpieces of Mathura sculpture. p. 3.
- ^ Marshall, John (1915). Archaeological Survey Of India Annual Report 1911-12. Excavations at Bhita. pp. 29–.
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- ^ ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
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- ^ Costumes & Ornaments As Depicted in the Early Sculpture of Gwalior Museum By Sulochana Ayyar, Mittal Publications, 1 December 1987, p. 29
- ^ Luders, Heinrich (1961). Mathura Inscriptions. p. 179.
- ^ "A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12 the century" by Upinder Singh p.365
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- ^ a b c Agrawala, V. S. (1965). "A New Yakshi Image from Mehrauli". Studies in Indian Art: 103.
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- ^ "Dhanabhuti of the Mathura inscription, as held by scholars, belonged to the royal family of Bharhut." in Das, Kalyani (1980). Early Inscriptions of Mathurā: A Study. Punthi Pustak. p. 13.
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- ^ Marshall, Sir John (1902). Monuments Of Sanchi Vol.1. p. 106.
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- ^ "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
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- ^ "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
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- ^ "The hippocamps, the tritons, centaurs and other weird creatures, which certainly were borrowed from Western Art, occur at Gaya and other places, in the sculptures of the early period. Forms more or less similar occur at Mathura and Arnaravati." Banerjee, Gauranga Nath (1920). Hellenism in ancient India. Calcutta. p. 64.
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- ^ The journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Vol. 23. Bishop's College Press. 1854. pp. 689–691 Plate XXXV.
- ^ Allan, John (1936). Catalogue of the coins of ancient India. pp. cxv.
- ^ a b Rosenfield, John M. (1967). The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans. University of California Press. p. 135.
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- ^ Neelis, Jason (2011). Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks - PDF. Boston: Brill. p. 110.
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- ^ a b Kumar, Ajit (2014). "Bharhut Sculptures and their untenable Sunga Association". Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology. 2: 223–241.
- ^ Bracey, Robert (2018). Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the First International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 23rd-24th March, 2017. The Classical Art Research Centre. Archaeopress. University of Oxford. p. 143.
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- ^ ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ Salomon 1998, pp. 86–87.
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- ISBN 978-90-04-15537-4.
- ^ a b c "We have actually discovered in the excavations at the Mora shrine stone torsos representing the Vrishni Heroes (...) Their style closely follows that of the free-standing Yakshas in that they are carved in the round. They are dressed in a dhoti and uttaraya and some types of ornaments as found on the Yaksha figures, their right hand is held in ahbayamudra..." in "Agrawala, Vasudeva Sharana (1965). Indian Art: A history of Indian art from the earliest times up to the third century A.D. Prithivi Prakashan. p. 253.
- ^ This statue appears in Fig.51 as one of the statues excavated in the Mora mound, in Rosenfield, John M. (1967). The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans. University of California Press. pp. 151–152 and Fig.51.
- ^ a b Lüders, H. (1937). Epigraphia Indica Vol.24. pp. 199–200.
- ^ ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-15537-4.
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- ISBN 978-90-04-15537-4.
- ISBN 978-1-61069-211-3.
- ^ a b Rosenfield, John M. (1967). The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans. University of California Press. pp. 151–152 and Fig.51.
- ^ The Jain stûpa and other antiquities of Mathurâ by Smith, Vincent Arthur Plate XIV
- ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ The Jain stûpa and other antiquities of Mathurâ by Smith, Vincent Arthur Plate VII
- ^ "The Ayagapata which had been set up by Simhanddika, anterior to the reign of Kanishka, and which is assignable to a period not later than 1 A.D., is worth notice because of the typical pillars in the Persian-Achaemenian style" in Bulletin of the Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery. The Museum. 1949. p. 18.
- ^ ISBN 9789004155374.
- ISBN 9789004155374.
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- ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ "the massive pillars in the Persian Achaemenian style" in Shah, Chimanlal Jaichand (1932). Jainism in north India, 800 B.C.-A.D. 526. Longmans, Green and co.
- ^ "The Ayagapata which had been set up by Simhanddika, anterior to the reign of Kanishka, and which is assignable to a period not later than 1 A.D., is worth notice because of the typical pillars in the Persian-Achaemenian style" in Bulletin of the Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery. Baroda Museum. 1949. p. 18.
- ^ Kumar, Ajit (2014). "Bharhut Sculptures and their untenable Sunga Association". Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology. 2: 223‐241.
- ^ ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ a b Bracey, Robert (2018). Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the First International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 23rd-24th March, 2017. The Classical Art Research Centre. Archaeopress. University of Oxford. pp. 142–143.
- ISBN 978-81-7305-264-4.
- ISBN 978-90-474-1930-3.
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- ^ Buddhist art of Mathurā, Ramesh Chandra Sharma, Agam, 1984 Page 26
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Verma, Thakur Prasad (1971). The Palaeography Of Brahmi Script. pp. 82–85.
- ISBN 9780391031401.
- ^ The former calligraphic style would have been: 𑀲𑁆𑀯𑀸𑀫𑀺𑀲𑁆𑀬 𑀫𑀳𑀓𑁆𑀰𑀢𑁆𑀭𑀧𑀲𑁆𑀬 𑀰𑀼𑀤𑀸𑀲𑀲𑁆𑀬
- ^ Salomon 1998, p. 34.
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- ^ ISBN 978-81-7304-017-7.
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- ^ ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ Mathura Museum Catalogue. 1910. p. 163.
- ^ JSTOR 29756891.
- JSTOR 3249969.
- ^ a b Lüders, Heinrich (1960). Mathura Inscriptions. pp. 31–32.
- ^ JSTOR 3249969.
- ^ a b Puri, Baij Nath (1965). India under the Kushāṇas. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
- ^ ISBN 9780691185385.
- ^ "Rare Mathura style Buddha sculpture found", Dawn, 19 March 2008
- ^ ISBN 978-0205873470.
- ^ "Seated Buddha with Two Attendants". www.kimbellart.org. Kimbell Art Museum.
- ISBN 9789810567057.
- .
- ISBN 978-90-04-15537-4.
- ISBN 9789004155374.
- ^ JSTOR 3250056.
- ^ Bracey, Robert. The Date of Kanishka since 1960 (Indian Historical Review, 2017, 44(1), 1-41). p. 4, note 2.
- ^ "Origin of the Buddha Image, June Coomaraswamy, p.300-301" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
- ^ Rhi, Juhyung. Identifying Several Visual Types of Gandharan Buddha Images. Archives of Asian Art 58 (2008). pp. 53–56.
- ISBN 978-90-04-18400-8.
- ^ Annual report 1909-10. p. 65.
- ^ Rosenfield, John M. (1967). The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans. University of California Press. p. xiv.
- ^ Banerjee, Gauranga Nath (1920). Hellenism in ancient India. Calcutta. p. 89.
- ^ a b Hellenism in Ancient India, Gauranga Nath Banerjee, p.96-98
- JSTOR 3249969.
- JSTOR 3249969.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-18400-8.
- ^ a b c Schopen, Gregory (1987). "The Inscription on the Kuṣān Image of Amitābha and the Charakter of the Early Mahāyāna in India" (PDF). The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. 10 (2): 99–138. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 December 2019.
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- ISBN 9788187780182.
- ^ Kuraishi, Mohammad Hamid; Kak, Ram Chandra; Chanda, Ramaprasad; Marshall, John Hubert (1922). Catalogue of the Museum of Archaeology at Sanchi, Bhopal State. Calcutta, Superintendent Government Printing, India. pp. 29–32.
- ^ Vogel, J.P. (1910). Annual report 1909-10. Archaeological Survey of India. p. 69, and Plate XXIII, d.
- ^ a b c d e Bautze-Picron, Claudine (2013). "A neglected Aspect of the Iconography of Viṣṇu and other Gods and Goddesses". Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Arts. XXVIII–XXIX: 81–92.
- ^ a b Kuraishi, Mohammad Hamid; Kak, Ram Chandra; Chanda, Ramaprasad; Marshall, John Hubert (1922). Catalogue of the Museum of Archaeology at Sanchi, Bhopal State. Calcutta, Superintendent Government Printing, India. pp. 29–32.
- ^ "Crowned Bodhisattva 3rd–early 4th century". www.metmuseum.org.
- ^ Banerjee, Hellenism in ancient India
- ^ Aspects of Indian Art, by J.E. Van Lohuizen-De Leuve, published by Pratapaditya Pal [3]
- ^ Hellenism in Ancient India by Gauranga Nath Banerjee p.90
- ^ Art of India by Vincent Arthur Smith p.98
- ^ History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE by Sonya Rhie Quintanilla p.158
- ^ The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans by John M. Rosenfield p.9
- JSTOR 4629244.
- ^ JSTOR 25159785.
- ^ The Art of the Kushans, Rosenfield, University of California Press 1967
- ISBN 978-81-208-2790-5.
- ^ Sastri, H. krishna (1923). Epigraphia Indica Vol-17. pp. 11–15.
- ^ Luders, Heinrich (1961). Mathura Inscriptions. pp. 148–149.
- ^ Bachhofer, Ludwig (1929). Early Indian sculpture vol.2. p. Notice 97.
- ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5.
- ^ JSTOR 29756891.
- ^ JSTOR 20111096.
- JSTOR 29756891.
- ISBN 978-0-674-39189-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-7596-278-1.
There is strong archaeological evidence in favour of Mathura being a centre of Buddhist religious activities (and not Vaishnava worship) during the Gupta period. (...) In fact the Hindu images which appear at Mathura in the pre-Gupta days are very few in number...
- ISBN 978-1-85669-451-3.
- JSTOR 29756891.
- ^ .
- ^ "Allahabad Museum statuette of Vishnu". museumsofindia.gov.in.
- JSTOR 606559.
- ISBN 978-90-04-06498-0.
- ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
- ISBN 978-90-04-06498-0.
- ISBN 978-90-04-06498-0.
- ISBN 978-90-04-06498-0.
- ^ Revire, Nicolas (1 January 2017). "Kinsman of the Sun: An Early Buddha Image in the Asian Art Museum, Berlin, and Solar Symbolism". Indo-Asiatische Zeitschrift. 20–21: 3–14 [10].
- JSTOR 29756891.
- ^ Pal, Pratapaditya (1986). Indian sculpture, Volume 1. p. 199.
- ^ Rosenfield, John M. (1967). The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans. University of California Press. p. 93.
- ^ "Naigamesa was a popular deity in the Kushana period and we have at least eight figures of this god from Mathura assignable to c. 1st to 3rd century A.D. (GMM., E. 1, 15.909, 15, 1001, 15. 1046, 15. 1115, 34.2402, 34. 2547, SML., J 626, etc)" in Joshi, Nilakanth Purushottam (1986). Mātr̥kās, Mothers in Kuṣāṇa Art. Kanak Publications. p. 41.
- ^ Smith, Vincent Arthur (1911). A history of fine art in India and Ceylon, from the earliest times to the present day. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 170–171.
- ^ ISBN 9788120804401.
- ^ ISBN 9788120804401.
- ^ "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
- ^ a b "Collections-Virtual Museum of Images and Sounds". vmis.in. American Institute of Indian Studies.
- ^ "Because they date to a period when the Pancharatra sect was most influential, these two images are probably best identified as Chaturvyuha (or Four-Vyuha) Vishnu. The central face is that of Vishnu's most supreme, most transcendent vyuha, or emanation, known as Vasudeva. The subsequent, less abstract vyuhas, in the form of a lion and a boar, appear at either side, with another vyuha implied at the back. The positions of the lion and boar heads differ in these two pieces, indicating that there was some disagreement about the way the viewer should read such an icon." "Brooklyn Museum". www.brooklynmuseum.org.
- ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
- ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8. Archivedfrom the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 15 October 2016.; Quote: "[Goddess] Lakshmi is associated with wealth, good fortune, and prosperity, and is considered the embodiment of all these things."
- ^ Agrawal 1989, p. 98.
- ^ a b c Parmentier, Henri (1930). "J. Ph. Vogel : La sculpture de Mathurâ". Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient. 30 (1): 457.
English translation: "Towards the middle of the 6th century, the activity of the Mathura school abruptly ceased, undoubtedly following the ravages of the Huns who had invaded the Gupta empire around 455. It must have died with the art of Gandhara under the persecutions by Mihirakula"
French original: "Vers le milieu du VIe siécle, l'activité de l'école de Mathura cesse brusquement sans doute à la suite des ravages des Huns qui avaient envahi l'empire Gupta vers 455. Elle a dû mourir avec l'art du Gandhara sous les persécussions de Mihirakula" - ^ The First Spring: The Golden Age of India by Abraham Eraly pp. 48–
- ^ ISBN 978-81-246-0015-3.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-246-0015-3.
- ^ a b c The Jain Stupa And Other Antiquities Of Mathura. 1901. p. 53.
- ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1.
- ^ Sethi, R. R.; Saran, Parmatma; Bhandari, D. R. (1951). The March of Indian History. Ranjit Printers & Publishers. p. 269.
- ISBN 978-81-246-0015-3.
- ISBN 978-81-208-1994-8.
Sources
- Agrawal, Ashvini (1989). Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 978-81-208-0592-7. Retrieved 6 March 2021.
- Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations". East and West. 39 (1/4): 111–143. JSTOR 29756891.
- Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE. BRILL. ISBN 9789004155374.
- Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3.
- Srinivasan, Doris (1997), Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art, ISBN 9789004107588
- Media related to Art of Mathura at Wikimedia Commons