Alchon Huns
Alchon Huns | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
370–670 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Portrait of Alchon king
Khingila (c.450 CE), and the bull/lunar tamga of the Alchon (known as Tamgha S1),[1] as visible on Alchon coinage . | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Brahmi and Bactrian (written) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Religion | Shaivism Buddhism Zoroastrianism[8] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Government | Nomadic empire | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Historical era | Late antiquity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Established | 370 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 670 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Currency | Drachm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Today part of | Afghanistan Pakistan India |
The Alchon Huns, (
The invasion of India by the
The Alchons have long been considered as a part or a sub-division of the Hephthalites, or as their eastern branch, but now tend to be considered as a separate entity.[1][10][11]
Identity
Name
The etymology of "Alchon" is disputed. It is only attested on the script of their coins and seals, where it appears as alkhon(n)o or alkhan(n)o in Bactrian script or lakhāna in Sanskrit.[12] Frantz Grenet, pointing to the Middle Persian apocalyptic book Zand-i Wahman yasn, argued that a name attested there, Karmīr Xyōn ("red Chionites") could represent a translation of Alkhonno, with the first element, al being a Turkic word for red and the second element representing the ethnic name "Hun".[13] An older suggestion, by H. Humbach, also connects the second element to "Hun", but argues that al- comes from the ethnic name Alan.[14]
Hans Bakker argues that the second spelling -khan- makes it unlikely that the term contains the ethnic name "Hun", as the Bactrian word for "Hun" is *uono (plural uonono).[17] Likewise, Khodadad Rezakhani argues that the name Alkhana is attested for a ruler in Western Kashmir, meaning it was probably initially a personal name. [18] Bakker instead argues that the ethnic name has been used as a personal name.[19] Furthermore, the “Red Huns” theory requires that the Alchon spoke a Turkic language, which is highly disputed.[18] Agustí Alemanny similarly disputes Humbach's etymology as relying on insufficient evidence of an Alan-Hun ethnic group.[20]
Because the name "Alchon" is only attested on coins and seals, there is some debate about whether the Alchon were a separate entity from the
The Hunas appear to have been the peoples known in contemporaneous Iranian sources as Xwn, Xiyon and similar names, which were later Romanised as Xionites or Chionites. The Hunas are often linked to the Huns that invaded Europe from Central Asia during the same period. Consequently, the word Hun has three slightly different meanings, depending on the context in which it is used: 1) the Huns of Europe; 2) groups associated with the Huna people who invaded northern India; 3) a vague term for Hun-like people. The Alchon have also been labelled "Huns", with essentially the second meaning, as well as elements of the third.[29][30]
Visual appearance
The Alchons are generally recognized by their elongated skull, a result of
In another ethnic custom, the Alchons were represented beardless, often wearing a moustache, in clear contrast with the Sasanian Empire prototype which was generally bearded.[33]
The emblematic look of the Alchons seems to have become rather fashionable in the area, as shown by the depiction of the Iranian hero
Symbolism
Another way for the Alchon Huns to affirm their identity and to differentiate themselves from their predecessors the
History
Invasion of Bactria (370 CE)
During the reign of
Early confrontations between the
The Alchon Huns occupied Bactria circa 370 CE, chasing the Kidarites in the direction of India, and started minting coins in the style of Shapur II but bearing their name "Alchono".
Invasion of Kabulistan (c.385 CE)
Around 380-385 CE, the Alchons emerged in
Coinage
The Alchon Huns initially issued anonymous coins based on
Gandhara (460 CE)
Around 430 King
Alchon ruler Mehama (r.461-493) was elevated to the position of Governor for Sasanian Emperor Peroz I (r. 459–484), and described himself as "King of the people of Kadag and governor of the famous and prosperous King of Kings Peroz" in a 462-463 letter.[53] He allied with Peroz I in his victory over the Kidarites in 466 CE, and may also have helped him take the throne against his brother Hormizd III. But he was later able to wrestle autonomy or even independence.[54]
Between 460 and 470 CE, the Alchons took over
The numismatic evidence as well as the so-called "Hephthalite bowl" from
The Alchons apparently undertook the mass destruction of Buddhist monasteries and
The rest of the 5th century marks a period of territorial expansion and eponymous kings, several of which appear to have overlapped and ruled jointly.[62][Note 1] The Alchon Huns invaded parts of northwestern India from the second half of the 5th century.[63] According to the Bhitari pillar inscription, the Gupta ruler Skandagupta already confronted and defeated an unnamed Huna ruler c. 456-457 CE.[63]
Sindh
From circa 480 CE, there are also suggestion of Hunnic occupation of
Contributions
The Hūṇas were precisely ruling the area of
First Hunnic War: Central India
In the First Hunnic War (496–515),
First Battle of Eran (510 CE)
A decisive battle occurred in Malwa, where a local Gupta ruler, probably a governor, named Bhanugupta was in charge. In the Bhanugupta Eran inscription, this local ruler reports that his army participated in a great battle in 510 CE at Eran, where it suffered severe casualties.[75] Bhanugupta was probably vanquished by Toramana at this battle, so that the western Gupta province of Malwa fell into the hands of the Hunas.[75]
According to a 6th-century CE Buddhist work, the
Having conquered the territory of Malwa from the Guptas, Toramana was mentioned in a famous inscription in Eran, confirming his rule on the region.[75] The Eran boar inscription of Toramana (in Eran, Malwa, 540 km south of New Delhi, state of Madhya Pradesh) of his first regnal year indicates that eastern Malwa was included in his dominion. The inscription is written under the neck of the boar, in 8 lines of Sanskrit in the Brahmi script. The first line of the inscription, in which Toramana is introduced as Mahararajadhidaja (The Great King of Kings),[73]: 79 reads:
In year one of the reign of the King of Kings Sri-Toramana, who rules the world with splendor and radiance...
On his gold coins minted in India in the style of the Gupta Emperors, Toramana presented himself confidently as:
Avanipati Torama(no) vijitya vasudham divam jayati
The lord of the Earth, Toramana, having conquered the Earth, wins Heaven
The fact that the Alchon Huns issued gold coins, such as the Toramana issue, in addition to their silver and copper coins, suggest that their empire in India was quite rich and powerful.[82]
Defeat (515 CE)
Toramana was finally defeated by local Indian rulers. The local ruler
Toramana was finally vanquished with certainty by an Indian ruler of the
Second Hunnic War: to Malwa and retreat
The Second Hunnic War started in 520, when the Alchon king Mihirakula, son of Toramana, is recorded in his military encampment on the borders of the Jhelum by Chinese monk Song Yun. At the head of the Alchon, Mihirakula is then recorded in Gwalior, Central India as "Lord of the Earth" in the Gwalior inscription of Mihirakula.[70] According to some accounts, Mihirakula invaded India as far as the Gupta capital Pataliputra, which was sacked and left in ruins.[87][73]: 64
There was a king called Mo-hi-lo-kiu-lo (Mihirakula), who established his authority in this town (Sagala) and ruled over India. He was of quick talent, and naturally brave. He subdued all the neighbouring provinces without exception.
The destructions of Mihirakula are also recorded in the Rajatarangini:[11]
Mihirakula, a man of violent acts and resembling
Mlecchas... the people knew his approach by noticing the vultures, crows, and other [birds], which were flying ahead to feed on those who were being slain within his army's [reach]— The Rajatarangini[11]
Finally however, Mihirakula was defeated in 528 by an alliance of Indian principalities led by
He (Yasodharman) to whose two feet respect was paid, with complimentary presents of the flowers from the lock of hair on the top of (his) head, by even that (famous) king
The
Victories of the Maukharis
According to the
The Maukharis led by their king Ishanavarman, rather than any of the Guptas, were therefore pivotal in repelling the Hunas.[101]
Retreat to Gandhara and Kashmir (530 CE)
The Alchon Huns resettled in the area of Gandhara and Kashmir in northwestern India under the rule of Sri Pravarasena (c.530-590 CE), thought to be the son of Toramana.[102] His reign probably lasted about 60 years from circa 530 CE.[102][103] According to Kalhana's 12th century text Rajatarangini, Pravarasena established a new capital named Pravarapura (also known as Pravarasena-pura). Based on topographical details, Pravarapura appears to be same as the modern city of Srinagar.[104][102] He also built a temple named "Pravaresha".[102][103]
Pravarasena was probably succeeded by a king named
Kashmir descendants of the Alchon Huns
Several rulers with Alchon names appear in
Retreat to Kabulistan and displacement of the Nezak Huns
Around the end of the 6th century CE, the Alchons withdrew to
During the 7th century, continued military encounters are reported between the Hunas and the northern Indian states which followed the disappearance of the Gupta Empire. For example,
The Alchons in India declined rapidly around the same time that the
Religion and ethics
The four Alchon kings
Mural with paintings of probable Alchon devotees can be seen in the Buddhist complex of the Butkara Stupa (Butkara I, construction phase 4). Dated to the 5th century CE, they suggest that the Alchon Huns may have been participants to the local Buddhist culture.[117]
Persecution of Buddhism
Later, however, the attitude of the Alchons towards Buddhism is reported to have been negative. Mihirakula in particular is remembered by
Although the Guptas were traditionally a
The 12th century Kashmiri historian Kalhana also painted a dreary picture of Mihirakula's cruelty, as well as his persecution of the Buddhist faith:
In him, the northern region brought forth, as it were, another god of death, bent in rivalry to surpass... Yama (the god of death residing in the southern regions). People knew of his approach by noticing the vultures, crows and other birds flying ahead eager to feed on those who were being slain within his army's reach. The royal Vetala (demon) was day and night surrounded by thousands of murdered human beings, even in his pleasure houses. This terrible enemy of mankind had no pity for children, no compassion for women, no respect for the aged
The Alchons are generally described as sun worshipers, a traditional cult of
The Hindu
.Mihirakula is also said to have been an ardent worshiper of Shiva,[127][128] although he may have been selectively attracted to the destructive powers of the Indian deity.[97]
Mihirakula is said to have been the founder of the Shankaracharya Temple, a shrine dedicated to Shiva in Srinagar,[129][130]
Consequences on India
The Alchon invasions, although only spanning a few decades, had long term effects on India, and in a sense brought an end to the middle kingdoms of India.[97]
Destructions
Indian urban culture was left in decline. Major traditional cities, such as
Political fragmentation
Soon after the invasions, the
Rise of Saivism
International trade
The Huna invasions are said to have seriously damaged India's trade with
During their rule of 60 years, the Alchons are said to have altered the hierarchy of ruling families and the Indian
Artistic syncretism: "A Nomadic Interlude in Indian Art"
The advances of the Alchon Huns in India seems to have fostered a type of syncretic art in Gandhara during the 5th-6th century, mixing Gupta art with Sasanian and Hunish inspiration and themes.[140] Particularly significant are a type of decorated lids from Gandhara which display courtly or hunting scenes, mixing them with Gupta decorative designs.[140]
-
Lid with Combat between a Man and a Lion. Cleveland Museum of Art.[141]
-
Box Lid with a Winged Lion, Gandhara, 5th century CE
-
Box Lid with a Lion Attacking an Elephant, Gandhara, 5th century CE.[142]
-
Box Lid with a Phoenix, Gandhara, 5th century CE.[143]
The Chilek silver bowl
Several silver bowls related to the Alchons have been found in the area of
The man in the medallion at the bottom of the Chilek bowl has a clearly elongated skull, characteristic of the Alchons Huns at that time and place.[147]
Coinage legacy (6th-12th century CE)
As they invaded northern and central India circa 500 CE, the Alchon Huns issued several types of coinage on the model of the
Ethnic legacy
The
Sources
Ancient sources refer to the Alchons and associated groups ambiguously with various names, such as Huna in Indian texts, and Xionites in Greek texts. Xuanzang chronicled some of the later history of the Alchons.[96]
Modern archeology has provided valuable insights into the history of the Alchons. The most significant cataloguing of the Alchon dynasty came in 1967 with Robert Göbl's analysis of the coinage of the "
Talagan copper scroll
A significant contribution to our understanding of Alchon history came in 2006 when Gudrun Melzer and Lore Sander published their finding of the "Talagan copper scroll", also known as the "Schøyen Copper Scroll", dated to 492 or 493, that mentions the four Alchon kings Khingila, Toramana, Javukha, and Mehama (who was reigning at the time) as donors to a Buddhist reliquary stupa.[153][Note 4][Note 5]
Rulers
Alchon Huns (400–670 CE) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|||||||
The rulers of the Alchons practiced skull deformation, as evidenced from their coins, a practice shared with the Huns that migrated into Europe. The names of the first Alchon rulers do not survive. Starting from 430 CE, names of Alchon kings survive on coins[152] and religious inscriptions:[153]
- anonymous kings (400 - 430 CE)
- Khingila(c. 430 – 490 CE)
- Javukha/Zabocho (c. mid 5th – early 6th CE)
- Mehama (c. 461 – 493 CE)
- Lakhana Udayaditya (c. 490's CE)
- Aduman
- Toramana (c. 490 – 515 CE)
- Mihirakula (c. 515 – 540 CE)
- Toramana II (c. 530 – 570 CE)
- Pravarasena (c. 530 – 590 CE)
- Gokarna (c. 570 – 590 CE)
- Narendraditya Khinkhila(c. 590 – 630 CE)
- Yudhishthira (630-670 CE)
Coinage
- Early Bactrian coinage based on Sasanian designs
The earliest Alchon Hun coins were based on
- Later original coinage
Later Alchon coinage became original and differed from predecessors in that it was devoid of Iranian (Sasanian) symbolism.[46] The rulers are depicted with elongated skulls, apparently a result of artificial cranial deformation.[46]
After their invasion of India the coins of the Alchon were numerous and varied, as they issued copper, silver and gold coins, sometimes roughly following the Gupta pattern. The Alchon empire in India must have been quite significant and rich, with the ability to issue a significant volume of gold coins.[155]
Coinage
-
Silver coin ofBrahmi legend on the reverse. Similar to the silver coin type of Skandagupta. On the obverse the date "52" is also inscribed.[156] A modern Image:[1].
-
AlchonTamghasymbol on a coin of Khingila.
-
Silver drachm ofKhingila (early portrait) without headdress, mid-late 5th century.[Note 6]
-
Silver drachm of Khingila (mature portrait),Bactrian legend: χιγγιλο αλχοννο "Khiggilo Alchono".[Note 7]
-
Silver drachm of Javukha, mid-late 5th century.
-
Silver drachm of Mehama legend: “ṣāhi mehama", mid-late 5th century.
-
Silver drachm of Lakhana, late 5th-early 6th centuries.
-
Gold dinar of Adomano,Kushano-Sasanianstyle, mid-late 5th century.
-
Silver drachm of Mihirakula, early-mid 6th century.
-
Bronze drachm of Toramana II wearing trident crown, late-phase Gandharan style. mid 6th century.
-
Silver stater of Toramana II, Kashmir style, mid-late 6th century.
-
Bronze drachm of Narana-Narenda (possibly Toramana II) wearing trident crown, late 6th century.
-
Khingila as a young king, without headdress. Artificial cranial deformation clearly visible.
-
.
Notes
History of Afghanistan | |
---|---|
Timeline | |
410–557 | |
Nezak Huns | 484–711 |
- OCLC 863884689. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
- OCLC 551489665.
- ^ "The earth betook itself (for succour), when it was afflicted by kings of the present age, who manifested pride; who were cruel through want of proper training; who,from delusion, transgressed the path of good conduct; (and) who were destitute of virtuous delights " from "Sondhni pillars: where Punjabis met with their Waterloo 1500 years ago". Punjab Monitor. Amritsar: Bhai Nand Lal Foundation. 27 April 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
- ISBN 9788280340061.
- ^ For an image of the copper scroll: Coin Cabinet of the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna Showcase 8
- ^ For equivalent coin, see CNG Coins
- ^ This coin is in the collection of the British Museum. For equivalent coin, see CNG Coins
References
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- ^ The "h" () is an early variant of the Gupta script.
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Before the Karkotas came to the throne, Kashmir may have been occupied by a long succession of foreign rulers or tribes. Certainly both the Kushänas and the Huns were present in the area for centuries. Indeed, the history of Kashmir begins to take shape only with the foundation of the Karkota dynasty around AD 625. The immediate predecessors of the Karkotas appear to have been Huns...
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But the name of Toramana is found on a species of Kashmir copper coins of which remarkably large quantities have been preserved to this day . The connection of this coinage with Kalhana's notice cannot be doubted.
- ^ Cribb, Joe (1 April 2017). "Early Medieval Kashmir Coinage – A New Hoard and An Anomaly". Numismatic Digest. 40: 99.
It seems very likely therefore that the rulers of Kashmir at this period were descendants of the Hun kings who ruled large parts of northwestern India from the mid-4th to the 6th century"
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- ^ Alram, Michael; Filigenzi, Anna; Kinberger, Michaela; Nell, Daniel; Pfisterer, Matthias; Vondrovec, Klaus. "The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012–2013 exhibit: 7. ALKHAN: KING KHINGILA AND THE CONSOLIDATION OF HUNNIC POWER IN NORTHWEST INDIA". Pro.geo.univie.ac.at. Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. Retrieved 16 July 2017.
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- ISBN 81-208-0498-8.
- ISBN 978-1-61069-026-3.
- ^ Göbl, Robert (1967). Dokumente zur Geschichte der iranischen Hunnen in Baktrien und Indien (in German). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 90, Em. 91.
- ^ Alram Alchon und Nēzak: Zur Geschichte der iranischen Hunnen in Mittelasien
- ISBN 978-81-7211-028-4.
- ISBN 978-81-208-0281-0.
- ^ "He is credited with the building of the temple named Jyeshteswara on the Gopa (Sankaracharya) hill in Srinagar" in Bamzai, Prithivi Nath Kaul (1980). Kashmir and Central Asia. Light & Life Publishers. p. 63.
- ^ Rezakhani 2017, p. 112.
- ISBN 0226742210.
- ^ a b Bakker 2020, p. 93, 98-99.
- ^ Parmentier, Henri (1930). "J. Ph. Vogel : La sculpture de Mathurâ". Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient. 30 (1): 457.
- ISBN 978-81-207-2503-4.
- ISBN 978-1-4073-0674-2.
- ^ Bakker, Hans T. (2017). The Huns in Central and South Asia. How Two Centuries of War against Nomadic Invaders from the Steps are Concluded by a Game of Chess between the Kings of India and Iran.
- ISBN 978-81-317-2041-7.
- ISBN 978-9004185258.
- JSTOR 24049312.
- ^ JSTOR 24049312.
- JSTOR 24049312.
- JSTOR 24049312.
- JSTOR 24049312.
- ^ JSTOR 24048285.
- JSTOR 29755649.
- ^ Kurbanov, Aydogdy (2014). "The hephthalites: iconographical materials" (PDF). Tyragetia. VIII [XXIII]: 328.
- ^ Bakker 2020, p. 24.
- ^ ISBN 9781000227932.
- ^ Puri 1957, p. 2.
- ^ White Hunnicelement. The Gurjara Pratiharas who were likely created from a fusion of White Hunnic and native Indian elements, ruled a vast Empire in northern India, and they also halted Arab Muslim expansion in India through Sind for centuries.
- ISBN 978-90-04-09249-5.
- ^ OCLC 2561645. GGKEY:4TALPN86ZJB.
- ^ ISBN 9788280340061.
- ^ Tandon, Pankaj (2013). Notes on the Evolution of Alchon Coins Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society, No. 216, Summer. Oriental Numismatic Society. pp. 24–34. also Coinindia Alchon Coins (for an exact description of this coin type)
- S2CID 43869990. Retrieved 8 July 2018.
- ^ Smith, Vincent Arthur; Edwardes, S. M. (Stephen Meredyth) (1924). The early history of India : from 600 B.C. to the Muhammadan conquest, including the invasion of Alexander the Great. Oxford : Clarendon Press. p. Plate 2.
- ^ Rezakhani 2017, pp. 199.
- ^ CNG Coins
Sources
- Alemanny, Austí (2000). Sources on the Alans: A Critical Compilation. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11442-5.
- Puri, Baij Nath (1957), The history of the Gurjara-Pratihāras, Munshiram Manoharlal
- Bakker, Hans T. (2020). The Alkhan: A Hunnic People in South Asia. Barkhuis. JSTOR j.ctv13nb6sv.
- Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017). ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press. .
- Schottky, Martin (2004). "Huns". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
External links
Media related to Alchon Huns at Wikimedia Commons
- Nezak Kings in Zabulistan and Kabulistan Archived 26 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine Coin Cabinet of the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna
- Coinage of the Hephthalites/ Alchons, Grifterrec