Mediterranean campaign of 1798
Mediterranean campaign of 1798 | |||||||
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Part of the War of the Second Coalition | |||||||
![]() Click an image to load the appropriate article. Left to right, top to bottom: Battles of Malta, 15 July 1798, the Nile, 18 August 1798, the Malta Convoy, 31 March 1800 | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
![]() After June 1798: ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
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Commanders and leaders | |||||||
![]() Ali Pasha of Yanina |
The Mediterranean campaign of 1798 was a series of major naval operations surrounding a French expeditionary force sent to
Unable to find Bonaparte, Nelson turned back across the Mediterranean, eventually reaching
With the French Navy in the Mediterranean defeated, other nations were encouraged to join the
Background
Bonaparte's plan
At the beginning of 1798, the
In the early spring of 1798, Bonaparte left his command at Boulogne and returned to Paris, reporting that continued British naval supremacy in Northern European waters made an invasion impossible in the near future.
With passage to Egypt seemingly unopposed Bonaparte gave orders for a fleet of thirteen
St. Vincent's response

Britain was not unaware of French preparations at Toulon and along the Mediterranean coast, but despite sustained efforts by British agents in France the destination of the French fleet was unknown.
St. Vincent had already been preparing for an expedition to Toulon with Nelson in mind, and the rear-admiral departed the Tagus in his flagship
On 17 May Terpsichore captured the
Thomas Waller on Emerald was divided from the other frigates, and his lookouts had observed Vanguard in its dismasted state at the height of the storm. The other two frigates had reefed their sails and ridden out the storm together, Captain Gage turning towards the Spanish coast when the storm abated and on 29 May encountered
Malta
Departing Toulon on 19 May, Bonaparte's fleet passed along the coast of
The report on Nelson's activity submitted to Bonaparte on 7 June was inaccurate: Repairs to Vanguard in San Pietro took six days, the squadron sailing on 27 May for Toulon, arriving off the harbour on 31 May.
Nelson's search
Delayed until 10 June by a calm and still unaware of French intentions, Nelson initially sailed along the Corsican coast, before anchoring at Elba on 12 June and sending Mutine into Civitavecchia for information. Hardy was unable to discover the French destination and, after a detour to Elba with his whole fleet, Nelson continued south.
Bonaparte at Malta

While Nelson was gathering his fleet and searching for the French, Bonaparte had secured the first stage of his plan for the invasion of Egypt. Arriving off Malta on 9 June, he demanded that the island's ruler,
The Maltese position had already been severely weakened by the large number of Frenchmen who were part of the Order, who refused en masse to take up arms against Bonaparte. The French Revolution had already significantly reduced the Knights' income and their ability to put up serious resistance to Bonaparte was seriously compromised by a lack of resources.[70] On 12 June, Bonaparte finally announced to his troops the destination of the expedition and on 19 June he sailed for Alexandria, initially steering east towards Crete. He left behind Vaubois and 4,000 men to maintain Malta as a base to control the Central Mediterranean.[72] To ensure that news of the impending attack on Egypt did not spread ahead of the fleet, Brueys ordered that any merchant ships that sighted the convoy during the passage were to be seized and detained until his force had reached Alexandria.[73] On 26 June, the British gained the first firm intelligence of French intentions, when the frigate HMS Seahorse under Captain Edward Foote encountered and captured the French frigate Sensible, which was returning to Toulon from Malta with a cargo of treasure and wounded soldiers, including General d'Hilliers.[74] From these prisoners the destination of the French fleet was discovered and Seahorse, joined shortly afterwards by Terpsichore, sailed in pursuit, hoping to encounter Nelson.[75]
Arrivals at Alexandria
Nelson's passage from Sicily to Alexandria was uneventful, the journey taking six days. Due to his lack of frigates, Nelson was unable to scout to the flanks of his advance and as a result only spoke with three merchant ships, none of which had useful information about the French fleet.[63] The lack of frigates had already had a decisive effect on 22 June, when the British fleet sighted four sails to the southeast.[58] Although Captain Thomas Thompson of HMS Leander requested permission to investigate the strangers, Nelson refused and ordered his fleet to continue on their current heading, believing the French to be five days ahead and wishing to reach Alexandria as rapidly as possible.[76] Had British frigates been available to approach and investigate the distant squadron, they might have discovered that they were scouts for the main French fleet, which was only a short distance away.[77] The French frigate had sighted the British fleet and reported its presence to Bonaparte, who adjusted his convoy's direction slightly to a more northerly trajectory.[78] As a result, Nelson's fleet passed north of the French to the east of Malta during the night in a heavy mist. Although Nelson was so close that his signal guns could be heard aboard Orient, his lookouts did not observe the French ships and the British fleet continued ahead without deviating.[79] When dawn broke the following day, Bonaparte's diversion to the northeast had taken his convoy out of sight of the British fleet, which continued to the southeast undisturbed.[80] On 28 June, Mutine arrived at Alexandria ahead of Nelson's fleet, and discovered that the French fleet was not in the harbour.[81] Once the main fleet had arrived, attempts were made to contact the British Consul George Baldwin, but these failed as he had been dismissed by the British government shortly before and had left the city.[82] As a result, official diplomatic channels were closed to Nelson.[83] A message warning of the French approach was carried to the Ottoman governor Sayyid Muhammad Kurayyim by Hardy in Mutine. Kurayyim replied that he had not seen the French fleet, and that he would enforce the Ottoman Empire's neutrality and forbid both the British and the French from entering the harbour or landing on the coast.[63] He was dismissive of the British warnings: "It is impossible that the French should come to our country. They have no business here and we are not at war with them."[84] Without Baldwin no further entries could be made, and when there was still no sign of the French on the morning of 29 June, Nelson decided to turn back northeast and take another pass across the central Mediterranean towards Corfu, following a more northerly course than his first voyage.[65]
Invasion of Egypt

Bonaparte's fleet, delayed by its many transport ships, passed Cape Durazzo on the island of
On 2 July, Bonaparte led his men to victory in the brief
Nelson returns
Nelson, having sailed northeast on the same day that the first French ships arrived off Alexandria, had reached
Battle of the Nile
On 1 August, Nelson's fleet reached the Egyptian coast, the ships HMS Swiftsure and HMS Alexander detached as scouts to investigate Alexandria harbour. Although the transport fleet was observed in the harbour, the French battle fleet was not.[53] Despite initial disappointment, Nelson ordered his ships to search the coastline, and at 14:00 lookouts on HMS Zealous reported the French anchored in line of battle in Aboukir Bay.[98] Brueys believed that his line, protected by shoals to the north and west, was impenetrable and that as a result the British would be forced to attack the rear and centre of his fleet. He consequently placed his strongest ships at these points, planning to stall the British fleet while his van used the prevailing northeasterly wind to counterattack.[99] Brueys was also confident that the British fleet, strung out and with nightfall approaching, would not attack that day. He believed that Nelson would anchor off the bay and attack in the morning, giving Brueys time to prepare and leaving open the option of simply sailing away during the night, following Bonaparte's orders to avoid a direct confrontation with the British fleet.[100]
Nelson's attack

Despite Brueys hopes, Nelson was determined to press home his attack at once and ordered his ships to advance, only pausing to fit springs on their anchor cables, which would allow them to easily direct their
Nelson followed in Vanguard, bringing the next two ships into action with the
Destruction of Orient

Shortly after 20:00, the trailing Swiftsure and Alexander, joined by Leander, attacked the French centre, causing severe damage to Franklin and killing Admiral Brueys on his quarterdeck with a cannon shot.
At 04:00 on 2 August, firing began again between Villeneuve's ships and a scratch British squadron formed from the less damaged ships.
Subsequent operations

With the exception of Villeneuve's fugitives, the French Mediterranean Fleet had been annihilated. Nine of eleven ships of the line had been captured or destroyed, as well as two frigates.[120] French casualties totalled more than 3,000 and possibly as many as 5,000, compared to British losses of 218 killed and 677 wounded.[122] However, many of Nelson's ships were seriously damaged, and urgent repairs were required for both his own ships and the captured prizes before they could begin the long voyage back to Britain. For more than two weeks Nelson remained in Aboukir Bay, effecting repairs, writing despatches and assessing the strategic situation in Egypt.[123] The first ship detached from his squadron was Leander, sent on 5 August to the fleet under Earl St. Vincent off Cádiz with reports of the battle.[124] On 8 August Aboukir Island was stormed and captured, and on 12 August Emerald, Alcmene and Bonne Citoyenne finally caught up with the fleet, followed on 17 August by Seahorse and Terpsichore.[125] Mutine was detached on 13 August with despatches for the Admiralty and on 14 August Nelson sent seven ships with the six seaworthy prizes to the mouth of Aboukir Bay under the command of Saumarez.[126] This convoy sailed for Gibraltar on 15 August and the following day Nelson burnt Heureux, followed on 18 August by Mercure and Guerrier, none of which were fit for continued service. On 19 August Nelson separated his remaining ships, leading three vessels northwards towards Naples and leaving a blockade squadron off Alexandria of Zealous, Goliath, Swiftsure and the frigates, under Captain Samuel Hood.[125]
By the time Nelson departed Alexandria, his first set of dispatches were already in French hands. Leander had been discovered off the western coast of Crete on 18 August 1798 by the French ship of the line Généreux, one of Villeneuve's escapees.[127] After separating from Villeneuve's squadron on 17 August, Généreux was sailing to Corfu when it encountered the British fourth rate. The larger French ship soon overtook the British vessel and a heated exchange followed: French efforts to board Leander were driven back with heavy casualties, and Captain Thompson at one stage successfully raked his opponent, but gradually the heavier weight of Généreux inflicted severe damage to the British ship and after six and a half hours Thompson was forced to surrender.[128] French captain Lejoille then authorised widespread looting of the personal effects of the British crew, whom he also forced to conduct repairs on both ships, an act against the established conventions of naval warfare.[129] The prize was towed to Corfu for repairs, the two battered vessels briefly encountering Mutine, which escaped to the westwards before Généreux could give chase. In captivity Lejoille continued to refuse to allow the British officers medical attention or return their stolen property.[130] Eventually returned to Britain, Thompson and Berry were knighted and heavily praised for their defence of their ship against heavy odds, while Lejoille was also commended for his success, assisted by his incorrect account of the battle published in French newspapers.[131]
Alexandria
With the French naval presence in the Mediterranean reduced to a few scattered vessels, the allies of the
In October the small British squadron at Alexandria was briefly reinforced by a Portuguese squadron of four ships of the line and the 64-gun HMS Lion under Captain Manley Dixon, although the Portuguese sailed for Malta after only a few days.[138] On 19 October the squadron was joined by two Turkish corvettes, two Russian frigates and 16 small Turkish gunboats, arranged by Hood on a visit to Rhodes in Swiftsure the week before.[139] The gunboats were subsequently used to bombard Aboukir Castle and a French encampment at Lake Maadie on 25 October, although results were negligible. After the first day the Turkish crews were replaced with British sailors, but except for a complaint from the French that "unfair" incendiary weapons were used in the attack, nothing was achieved. The incendiary shells subsequently proved to have been taken from the captured Spartiate following the battle on 1 August and were found to be made of a substance that burned even under water.[139] After three days the bombardment was abandoned and no further activity took place on the Egyptian coast during the remainder of the year. The Turkish and Russian vessels were eventually withdrawn in December, while Lion was detached to join the blockade of Malta.[140]
Ionian Sea
The main Mediterranean fleets of the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire were deployed in the
At the same time, the Ionian Islands were attacked by a joint Russian and Turkish expeditionary force, which included ten Russian ships of the line, numerous smaller Russian vessels and approximately 30 assorted Turkish ships. On board were 8,000 Turkish soldiers, which rapidly invaded and seized the islands of
Malta and Naples
Further westwards, the newly captured French island of Malta was under a much more diligent blockade. The returning convoy from Aboukir Bay under Saumarez reached Malta in September. There he encountered a squadron of four
On the same day that the French retreated to Valletta, Nelson despatched the ships Alexander, Culloden, and Colossus from his squadron at Naples to blockade the port, under the command of Captain Alexander Ball. Although the Neapolitans refused to deploy forces to Malta, which was technically their territory, the squadron was joined within a few days by Niza's Portuguese ships and then by Nelson, now Lord Nelson, in Vanguard on 24 October.[146] Four days later, Nelson authorised Ball to negotiate the surrender of the nearby island of Gozo. The French abandoned the island's fortifications and the British captured 24 cannon and 3,200 urgently required sacks of grain, which were distributed among the Maltese populace. With the French garrison trapped in Valletta, no further actions took place off Malta during the year, both sides settling in for a long siege.[148]
While his captains enforced the blockade of Malta and Alexandria during September and October, Nelson was anchored in the
Spain and Menorca

While Nelson was engaged in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean, the main Mediterranean Fleet under Earl St Vincent had ensured that the Spanish Navy was unable to intervene. On 24 May St Vincent was joined at the Tagus by a reinforcement of eight ships under Rear-Admiral
Once the French Mediterranean Fleet had been destroyed in Aboukir Bay, St Vincent was determined to restore British hegemony in the Mediterranean. To ensure this, his fleet needed a base with a well protected deep water harbour that could not be assaulted by land.
Notes
- ^ Ushakov's Mediterranean Campaign
- ^ Richard Woodman suggests that Nelson deliberately allowed Bonaparte to sail from Toulon in order to have the opportunity to engage and destroy him at sea.[43] This is incorrect: as noted by Oliver Warner, Nelson did not have the forces or the ability to intercept Bonaparte until 12 days after the French convoy had sailed.[44] The same tactic has been suggested by historian Peter Padfield regarding Lord Howe's intentions in the days before the Glorious First of June in 1794.[45]
References
- ^ Chandler, p. 78
- ^ Come, p. 185
- ^ James, p. 113
- ^ Gardiner, p. 107
- ^ Mostert, p. 248
- ^ Cole, p. 3
- ^ Maffeo, p. 230
- ^ Adkins, p. 7
- ^ Cole, p. 13
- ^ a b UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 7 May 2024.
- ^ Maffeo, p. 227
- ^ Warner, p. 41
- ^ Rose, p. 140
- ^ Maffeo, p. 224
- ^ Rose, p. 141
- ^ Gardiner, p. 20
- ^ a b Clowes, p. 353
- ^ Cole, p. 5
- ^ a b c James, p. 150
- ^ Adkins, p. 8
- ^ Rodger, p. 458
- ^ Maffeo, p. 234
- ^ Bradford, p. 169
- ^ Gardiner, p. 18
- ^ Bradford, p. 170
- ^ Mostert, p. 255
- ^ Warner, p. 45
- ^ Clowes, p. 351
- ^ Bradford, p. 172
- ^ a b Keegan, p. 41
- ^ Maffeo, p. 239
- ^ Bradford, p. 173
- ^ Padfield, p. 112
- ^ Mostert, p. 250
- ^ Padfield, p. 113
- ^ Keegan, p. 45
- ^ Keegan, p. 47
- ^ Maffeo, p. 241
- ^ Keegan, p. 40
- ^ Adkins, p. 11
- ^ Maffeo, p. 259
- ^ Clowes, p. 354
- ^ Woodman, p. 112
- ^ Warner, p. 50
- ^ Padfield, p. 17
- ^ Keegan, p. 44
- ^ James, p. 152
- ^ Bradford, p. 175
- ^ Maffeo, p. 243
- ^ Mostert, p. 251
- ^ Keegan, p. 48
- ^ a b Mostert, p. 253
- ^ a b c Clowes, p. 355
- ^ Keegan, p. 50
- ^ Warner, p. 55
- ^ Bradford, p. 176
- ^ Bradford, p. 177
- ^ a b c Mostert, p. 254
- ^ Gardiner, p. 29
- ^ Bradford, p. 181
- ^ Rodger, p. 459
- ^ Padfield, p. 114
- ^ a b c James, p. 154
- ^ James, p. 153
- ^ a b Adkins, p. 15
- ^ "St Lucian Fort" (PDF). Mare Nostrum. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
- ^ Cole, p. 8
- ^ Cole, p. 9
- ^ Warner, p. 29
- ^ a b Cole, p. 10
- ^ Gardiner, p. 21
- ^ Adkins, p. 13
- ^ Maffeo, p. 256
- ^ James, p. 208
- ^ a b James, p. 160
- ^ Keegan, p. 56
- ^ Adkins, p. 14
- ^ Bradford, p. 182
- ^ Maffeo, p. 258
- ^ Bradford, p. 185
- ^ Warner, p. 58
- doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/1165. Retrieved 26 November 2009. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- ^ Bradford, p. 188
- ^ Maffeo, p. 257
- ^ Bradford, p. 187
- ^ Cole, p. 20
- ^ a b James, p. 156
- ^ Adkins, p. 17
- ^ Mostert, p. 257
- ^ James, p. 159
- ^ Warner, p. 65
- ^ Bradford, p. 192
- ^ Mostert, p. 258
- ^ Bradford, p. 195
- ^ Maffeo, p. 266
- ^ Warner, p. 62
- ^ Gardiner, p. 30
- ^ Padfield, p. 118
- ^ Padfield, p. 120
- ^ James, p. 161
- ^ Clowes, p. 360
- ^ a b Adkins, p. 24
- ^ Gardiner, p. 33
- ^ Mostert, p. 266
- ^ James, p. 165
- ^ Clowes, p. 362
- ^ Adkins, p. 28
- ^ Clowes, p. 363
- ^ James, p. 167
- ^ James, p. 169
- ^ Adkins, p. 31
- ^ Germani, p. 58
- ^ Clowes, p. 366
- ^ Mostert, p. 271
- ^ Gardiner, p. 36
- ^ Clowes, p. 367
- ^ James, p. 172
- ^ a b Clowes, p. 368
- ^ James, p. 173
- ^ a b Mostert, p. 272
- ^ Adkins, p. 37
- ^ Clowes, p. 370
- ^ Maffeo, p. 273
- ^ James, p. 182
- ^ a b Clowes, p. 373
- ^ James, p. 183
- ^ Gardiner, p. 43
- ^ James, p. 232
- ^ Clowes, p. 516
- ^ James, p. 235
- ^ James, p. 237
- ^ James, p. 191
- ^
Ed Butts (1 January 2018). "Guelph's first poet played bit part in Britain's war with Napoleon". Guelph Mercury. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
On Aug. 22, the Alcmene intercepted the small French warship Legere. Realizing imminent capture by the larger English vessel, the French captain threw a bundle of papers overboard. Hope was sure he had lost an opportunity to seize important enemy documents. But, within range of the French guns, Taylor and another seaman dove into the sea and grabbed the bundle before it could sink. A ship's boat from the Alcmene plucked the men and their prize out of the water.
- ^ "Guelph's Maritime History and "The Case of the disappearing old tar"" (PDF). Guelph historical society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
Prior to emigrating to Canada, Taylor served on the HMS Alcmene. He was recognized for bravery when he saved dispatches from Napoleon Bonaparte that were thrown overboard from a French gunboat. As a result, he received an annuity of 20 pounds per year for life
- ^ Graeme Mercer Adam (1891). Toronto, Old and New: A Memorial Volume, Historical, Descriptive and Pictorial, Designed to Mark the Hundredth Anniversary of the Passing of the Constitutional Act of 1791, which Set Apart the Province of Upper Canada and Gave Birth to York (now Toronto) with Some Sketches of the Men who Have ... Mail printing Company. p. 174. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
- ^ a b c Clowes, p. 376
- ^ James, p. 192
- ^ a b James, p. 193
- ^ a b James, p. 194
- ^ a b Clowes, p. 377
- ^ Gardiner, p. 58
- ^ Moschonas 1975, pp. 388–389.
- ^ James, p. 190
- ^ a b Clowes, p. 375
- ^ James, p. 188
- ^ a b Gardiner, p. 67
- ^ Clowes, p. 374
- ^ a b James, p. 189
- ^ a b Gardiner, p. 47
- ^ Bradford, p. 223
- ^ a b James, p. 195
- ^ "No. 15061". The London Gazette. 15 September 1798. p. 879.
- ^ Gardiner, p. 54
- ^ a b c Gardiner, p. 45
- ^ James, p. 196
- ^ Clowes, p. 378
Bibliography
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- Germani, Ian (January 2000). "Combat and Culture: Imagining the Battle of the Nile". The Northern Mariner. X (1): 53–72. .
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- ISBN 0-7139-9411-8.
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Further reading
- Glover, Gareth (2017). The Forgotten War Against Napoleon: Conflict in the Mediterranean 1793-1815. ISBN 978-1473833951.