French rule in the Ionian Islands (1797–1799)
Ionian Islands | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overseas department of the French First Republic | |||||||||
1797–1799 | |||||||||
Commissioner-general | | ||||||||
• June 1797 – January 1798 | Antoine Gentili | ||||||||
• January–August 1798 | Pierre-Jacques Bonhomme de Comeyras | ||||||||
• October 1798 – March 1799 | François Louis Dubois | ||||||||
Historical era | Surrender of Corfu | 3 March 1799 | |||||||
2 April 1800 | |||||||||
| |||||||||
Today part of | Greece |
The First period of French rule in the Ionian Islands (Greek: Πρώτη Γαλλοκρατία των Επτανήσων) lasted from June 1797 to March 1799. Following the fall of the Republic of Venice in May 1797, the Ionian Islands, a Venetian possession, were occupied by Revolutionary France. The French instituted a new, democratic regime and, following the Treaty of Campo Formio, annexed the islands to France, forming the three departments of Corcyre (Corfu), Ithaque (Ithaca) and Mer-Égée (Aegean Sea).
Originally widely welcomed, French rule began to grow oppressive to the islanders, and aroused the enmity of the
Background
At the end of the 18th century, the
Under Venetian rule, the society of the Ionian Islands was divided into three classes, analogous to those of Venice itself: the privileged nobility, the urban middle class (cittadini) and the commoners (popolari).[3] The noble families, who enjoyed full Venetian citizenship, were on top of the pyramid, and provided the members of the ruling council of each island. Originally restricted to Italian settler families, from the 16th century on this group also included Greek families. As in Venice, Corfu, Cephalonia, and Zakynthos each had a Libro d'Oro, where the aristocratic families were inscribed.[3] Their nature differed from island to island: in Corfu, they were obliged to reside in Corfu city; likewise in Kythira and Zakynthos they mostly dwelled in the capital, whereas in Cephalonia a rural nobility persisted, and no clear distinction was evident in Lefkada.[4] Nevertheless, the power of the nobility rested on the ownership of land, and as a class they derided mercantile activity, which was left to the urban burghers; as a result, the latter also came to amass wealth and land.[3] The burghers in turn challenged the nobility's claim to monopolize local authority and aspired to join the ruling class, while the peasantry was largely politically marginalized.[4]
The Venetian authorities were left in a position of mediator, but still had to acknowledge the power of the noble families, who often were a law on themselves and could even raise military corps of their own; while the nobles were content to pursue their private feuds and plot and conspire against each other for local office, they were also able of concerted action against the Venetian authorities, when they felt their interests threatened. Venetian writ ran lightly in the cities, and was almost non-existent in the countryside; not infrequently, Venetian official who ventured to the country to arrest some outlaw, were forced back in humiliation.
![Oil painting of a standing man in red costume draped with a golden cloak](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Carlo_Aurelio_Widmann%2C_PGM%2C_Grezler.jpg/170px-Carlo_Aurelio_Widmann%2C_PGM%2C_Grezler.jpg)
A further distinguishing feature between rulers and ruled was religion, where the official
As the
Start of the French occupation
![A three-quarter-length depiction of Bonaparte, with black tunic and leather gloves, holding a standard and sword, turning backwards to look at his troops](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/1801_Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_on_the_Bridge_at_Arcole.jpg/170px-1801_Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_on_the_Bridge_at_Arcole.jpg)
The fate of Venice and of its possessions was to be decided between France and
Consequently, on 26 May, Napoleon ordered his fellow Corsican, the
In the meantime, commissioners from the Provisional Municipality of Venice arrived in Corfu, informing Widmann of events and bringing orders to maintain order and begin the democratization of the local administration. Widmann tried to ensure consensus by issuing a notarized declaration of public concord, but only 177 citizens, of whom 71 nobles, signed it.
The Austrian court protested the unilateral French occupation, but could do little about it. In the ongoing negotiations, Napoleon for a while pretended that the islands were to be incorporated into the
Establishment of a democratic regime
As in the Venetian metropolis, the French established new administrations in the form of Provisional Municipalities. In Corfu, the body comprised the
With Arnault as its political advisor, the Provisional Municipality of Corfu became the supreme executive authority on the island. Its chairman and vice-chairman were elected by secret ballot among its members for terms of one month. Sessions of the council were opened to the public (but confined to 40 attendees); closed sessions could be held to discuss a subject, but all decision-making had to be public, and every citizen could request to speak during these sessions.[19] Eight committees (comitati) were created for Public Salvation, Health, Food, Commerce and the Arts, Economy, Police, Public Education, and Military Affairs. These committees exercised administration in their respective fields and could propose laws and select their officials, but their approval was the purview of the Provisional Municipality council.[19]
Justice was reformed wholesale, with the introduction of French legal principles and the establishment of civil courts—seven county courts, two courts of first instance, and a court of appeal—and criminal courts—two magistrate's courts and an appeals court.[19] Unlike Venetian times, when judges were chosen by the heads of the noble families, now the judges were appointed by the Provisional Municipality, which had also the right to issue pardons.[19][23] A similar pattern was followed in the other islands, with the notable exception of Cephalonia, which traditionally had been divided into multiple provinces; now no less than five Provisional Municipalities were established on the island, at Argostoli, Livatho, the Castle of Saint George, Asos, and Lixouri.[19]
On 5 July, in an official ceremony, the
The French revolutionary songs
In August, Gentili began a 40-day tour of the Islands, confirming the firm installation of the new regime,[24] but Arnault resigned on 29 July.[26] The lawyer Pierre-Jacques Bonhomme de Comeyras was appointed as his successor on 7 January 1798. He did not immediately come to the Islands, however; informed of the bad state of public finances, he toured Italy for several months trying to secure funds, mostly in vain, until he succeeded in concluding a 500,000-franc loan with the Republic of Ragusa.[27][28]
Annexation to France
The pro-French elements in Zakynthos soon sent emissaries to Napoleon for an outright annexation of the Islands to France. In Corfu, the pro-Venetian tendency initially prevailed in the Provisional Municipality, hoping to be included in a reorganized Venetian state. Eventually, however, the pro-French faction won out, particularly after attempts to get Austria to intervene in Corfu failed to elicit any response; on 5 October Napoleon declared himself ready to cede Venice itself to the Austrians, but was determined to keep the Ionian Islands. The pro-French faction eventually prevailed in Lefkada as well, while Cephalonia remained divided, and Preveza pro-Venetian.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Antoine_Gentili.jpg/170px-Antoine_Gentili.jpg)
On 7 November, Napoleon issued a decree creating the
Due to a sudden illness, Gentili had to return to Corsica to recuperate, where he died almost immediately. As his replacement, the Directory briefly envisaged the distinguished general and future King of Sweden,
Among the beneficial measures of the French authorities were the great care shown to public health and education. The public school system—which was partly funded by secularizing Catholic Church property—was expanded and French-language public schools founded. A "National Library" was opened in May, and a "National Printing Office" under the Frenchman Jouenne on 11 August. The French also planned to establish further printing presses, send children to France for education, and create a regular shipping route to Italy.[27]
Reactions to French rule: From enthusiasm to disenchantment
The French occupation of the Islands gave rise to hopes among Greek emigrants and intellectuals in Western Europe that they could be used as a springboard for a liberation of Greece. In July 1797, Rigas Feraios published his Constitution of the Hellenic Republic, based on the French revolutionary constitutions of
While initially enjoying broad support, the French regime soon began to loose some of its appeal. The heavy taxation and strict fiscal administration were widely resented, while the dismissive attitude of the French towards religion and the traditions of the Ionian people, coupled with the predatory behaviour of French troops, made them increasingly unpopular.[27] The quartering of troops among the Corfiot citizenry—a necessity due to the complete lack of barracks—was also greatly resented.[38]
Although the Greek clergy had supported the installation of the democratic regime and even participated actively in it, the French generally treated the clergy with hostility, as can be seen by their demand that all clerics wear the tricolour revolutionary cockade on pain of execution.[27][39] The nobles were opposed to the French from the outset, and maintained contacts with Austria, never losing the opportunity to foment popular resentment, but even the new democratic clubs like the "Patriotic Society" and the "Constitutional Club", making full use of the very liberty granted by the French, began criticizing Gentili and questioning the necessity of French presence in the Ionian Islands; the Constitutional Club was eventually closed by the French authorities.[27]
French diplomatic manoeuvring, notably the cession of Venice to Austria, also estranged parts of the populace: in December 1797, rumours began circulating that the same fate awaited the Ionian Islands, with the mainland exclaves to be sold to the Ottomans. Chabot intervened forcefully to quell the rumours, and expelled the Catholic archbishop Francisco Fenzi, who was considered as the instigator of the rumours, on 11 April 1798.[27][39] Conversely, the news of the French occupation of Malta and Alexandria, as part of Napoleon's invasion of the Ottoman territories in the Levant, were received with enthusiasm.[39][40]
French relations with Ali Pasha
The main external concern of the French administration was its relationship to its most important neighbour, the powerful and ambitious Ali Pasha of Yanina, semi-autonomous Ottoman ruler of much of Albania and mainland Greece. Already on 1 June 1797, Ali Pasha himself had taken the initiative, sending a letter to Napoleon expressing his respect and admiration, hopes of friendly relations, and the dispatch of four French artillery NCOs to train the Pasha's own artillery. Both Napoleon and the Directory received this with favour, and instructed Gentili to establish amicable relations with the ruler of Yanina.[34]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Ali_Pasha_of_Ioannina%2C_at_a_hunt_at_Butrint_Lake_in_March_1819%2C_by_Louis_Dupr%C3%A9_-_1819.jpg/220px-Ali_Pasha_of_Ioannina%2C_at_a_hunt_at_Butrint_Lake_in_March_1819%2C_by_Louis_Dupr%C3%A9_-_1819.jpg)
Gentili met in person with Ali at Butrint during his tour of the islands, and French envoys, notably
Relations became strained in 1798, after Ali received orders from the Sultan to provide troops for a campaign against another powerful regional ruler, the pasha of Vidin, Osman Pazvantoğlu. Chabot sent his adjutant, Schaeffer, ostensibly to demarcate the boundaries at Butrint, but in reality to dissuade Ali from obeying, as the French had good relations with Pazvantoğlu. Ali Pasha used the opportunity to complain of the lack of reciprocation for his friendly gestures, and claimed that only if the French provided him with 10,000 troops and 100,000 sequins would he be able to disobey the Sultan.[34] In mid-June, Napoleon's aide-de-camp, Lavalette, arrived in the Islands, bearing news of the capture of Malta and a letter from Napoleon to Ali Pasha, urging him to put faith in Lavalette and in turn send a trusted envoy of his own to Napoleon. As Ali was absent in the campaign against Pazvantoğlu, Lavalette was unable to hand over the letter.[34] In reality, Napoleon's invasion of Egypt caused Ali deep concern about ultimate French designs. While the French authorities in the Islands believed in Ali's friendship and considered that his domains shielded them from attack by the Sultan's forces, Ali decided to side with the Sultan, particularly after news of the French defeat in the Battle of the Nile arrived. In preparation for the inevitable conflict, the ruler of Yanina patched up his differences with all neighbouring rulers and magnates, as with the Souliotes.[34]
Russo-Ottoman conquest of the Ionian Islands
The French invasion of Egypt had upset the balance of power in the East, and caused a rapprochement between the Ottomans and the
Ali Pasha's attacks on Butrint and Preveza
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/IAN_0952_Myrbach_78_small.jpg/170px-IAN_0952_Myrbach_78_small.jpg)
Chabot, the military governor of the Islands, received news of the Russo-Ottoman declaration of war on France on 3 October 1798, at Lixouri.[34] At this time, Ali Pasha's forces had already assembled in the settlements around Butrint. Biding his time, Ali invited adjudant-général Roze for negotiations to Filiates, but once he had learned as much as he could about French strength and dispositions at Corfu and elsewhere, he ordered him taken prisoner to Yanina. Ali tried to repeat the same stratagem with the commandant of Butrint, but he sent only Lieutenant Steil and a Greek priest; both were arrested and brought to Yanina.[42] Ali composed a letter to Chabot, demanding the cession of the mainland exclaves, as well as the Castle of Santa Maura on Lefkada. A second letter followed soon after, where he demanded the surrender of Corfu itself.[41] The new commissioner-general, Dubois, arrived at about the same time, and on 13 October issued a proclamation to the inhabitants of the three departments.[41]
During the following days, the commandant of Butrint reported that Ali's troops were moving to occupy the heights around the town, and asked for reinforcements. The attack began on 18 October. Chabot sent
At the same time, Ali's forces moved on Preveza. There the French, anticipating an attack, had begun erecting fieldworks at the
Operations of the Russo-Ottoman fleet
The Russo-Ottoman fleet arrived at Kythira on 7 October 1797. The French garrison, 68 strong under Captain Michel, refused repeated offers of surrender. After naval bombardment and attacks by Ottoman infantry, on 13 October the French agreed to surrender the island's fort under terms.[44] From Kythira the fleet sailed to Zakynthos via Koroni. On Zakynthos, the French position was precarious. The nobles on the island were joined by a large pro-Russian faction, while leading members of the French administration were missing at this crucial moment: commissioner Chriseuil de Rulhière was in Paris, the head of the administration was in Corfu for consultations, and general La Salcette was in Lefkada and then Preveza. The burden of defending the island fell on Major Vernier, who disposed of 400 French soldiers and 500 militia.[44] The fleet appeared off the island on 24 October. While many of the inhabitants of Zakynthos town fled to the interior in fear of bombardment, large numbers of peasants, bearing Russian flags, streamed into the town to prevent the French and their supporters from providing any resistance. The latter were forced to retreat behind the walls of the citadel, while the peasants opened the jails, looted the administrative buildings, and burned the tree of liberty along with all official documents at the Square of St. Mark's. The looting spread to the houses of individual pro-democratic citizens, as well as to the Jewish quarter.[44] A delegation of nobles, led by Count Nikolaos Gradenigos Sgouros and the protopapas Soumakis went to Ushakov to offer the capitulation of the island. A detachment of 700 Russians, along with a few Turks, landed on the island and joined the mass assembled in the town, laying siege to the citadel. The French garrison surrendered on 25 October. Vernier and 54 others were left free to return to France, while the rest were moved to Glarentza as prisoners of war, before being shipped to Constantinople.[44]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BA_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D0%B5_%C2%AB%D0%9A%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%C2%BB._%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%A1%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%28%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%82-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B3%2C_1911-1915%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg)
The next target of the Russo-Ottoman fleet was Cephalonia. As in Zakynthos, there too a broad pro-Russian movement, fanned by Russian agents, the clergy, and the nobility, had come into existence. The French under Captain Royer disposed of no more than 350 men, who had to defend the island's two major towns, Argostoli and Lixouri. Given that both were completely unfortified, and amidst daily growing and more blatant hostility by the population, the French decided to withdraw to the Assos Castle, and thence evacuate to Lefkada.[44] Upon their departure from Argostoli, the inhabitants, joined by armed peasants, tore down the French flag and hoisted the Russian one instead. Amidst rioting and violence, the democratic regime was abolished. When the Russo-Ottoman fleet arrived on 29 October, the island was no longer under French control. The French garrison of Lixouri successfully evaded to Lefkada, but was taken captive by armed peasants, while those of Argostoli managed to reach Assos only to surrender to the Russians, and be in turn transported to Constantinople.[44] In Ithaca, the local inhabitants convinced the French garrison, under Captain Millet, that resistance was futile, and urged them to withdraw to Corfu. Unlike the other islands, the withdrawal of the French took place in an orderly and friendly atmosphere. When Ushakov sent two of his ships to the island, the inhabitants submitted.[44]
In Lefkada, the anti-French agitation had also had a profound effect; the local authorities informed the French that they could not count on the support of the populace, which was rapidly arming itself, against the Russians. The French, under Major Mialet, withdrew to the Castle of Santa Maura. Reinforced by the garrison of Vonitsa, and some remnants of the garrison of Preveza, he disposed of about 500 men.[45] On 28 October, the Russian flag was hoisted in the town hall, and remained there despite French threats to the inhabitants. A squadron of the Russo-Ottoman fleet arrived soon after, and after the refusal of the French to surrender, began to besiege the fortress. Eventually the rest of the fleet under Ushakov arrived, and after several days of close blockade and bombardment, the French surrendered on 17 November. Ushakov allowed 20 French officers to depart for France immediately, but the rest were sent to captivity in Constantinople.[43]
Siege and fall of Corfu
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/1780~._Pianta_della_citt%C3%A0_e_fortezze_di_Corf%C3%B9.jpg/220px-1780~._Pianta_della_citt%C3%A0_e_fortezze_di_Corf%C3%B9.jpg)
With the fall of Lefkada, Corfu remained as the last bastion of French control in the Ionian Islands. There too, the anti-French and pro-Russian sentiment had been gaining ground, and the exhortations of commissioner-general Dubois largely failed to have an impact. French forces on the island, augmented by the garrisons of Ithaca and Parga, amounted to 1,500 infantry and some 300 artillerymen, as well as 8 naval vessels.[43] To augment this force, on 23 October martial law was declared and a militia formed, followed by compulsory levies from the wealthy and confiscations of food and animals. On 2 November, the inhabitants of Corfu city were disarmed, but when the French tried to repeat this at the suburb of Mantouki the next day, they met violent resistance, leading to the bombardment and evacuation of the suburb, and the looting of the Platytera Monastery. The rest of the suburbs were disarmed without major incident. Preparations for a siege also included the levelling of the quarter of Sano Rocco at the main entrance to the city, and the fortification of the island of Vido.[43]
The first enemy ships arrived off the city on 5 November, landing troops north and south of the city. Russian offers for a capitulation, including the immediate transfer of the garrison to a French port, were rejected. Hostilities began on 9 November with skirmishes between the two sides. On 19 November, Ushakov arrived from Lefkada with the remainder of the fleet. His main priority was to restore order to the island, where the collapse of French authority had unleashed an orgy of looting, murder, and arson. Count Nikolettos Voulgaris was appointed to head the civil administration, while the peasantry was organized to support the siege.[46] The Russo-Ottoman forces were further augmented by 3,000 Albanians sent by Ali Pasha, while on the French side volunteer detachments from Corfu and Cephalonia distinguished themselves. On 3 February 1799, three French ships managed to break the blockade and went to Ancona, carrying pleas for reinforcements—as well as art objects looted from Corfu—but the reinforcements never arrived. The capture of Vido island on 1 March 1799 signalled the beginning of the end for the besieged, and the garrison capitulated on 4 March, on condition that the French troops be repatriated immediately.[47]
Aftermath
In all the islands they occupied, the Russians installed provisional administrations of nobles and burghers. Very soon, the Russian authorities invited assemblies of the nobles to undertake the governance of the Ionian Islands, thereby restoring the previous status quo.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Flag_of_the_Septinsular_Republic.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Septinsular_Republic.svg.png)
On 21 June 1799, the Senate decided to send a twelve-member delegation to Constantinople and Saint Petersburg to express its gratitude to the Sultan and Tsar, but also press for the restoration of the Islands' maritime and land frontier with the withdrawal of Ali Pasha from Butrint, Preveza, and Vonitsa, and their recognition as an independent state. As Angelo Orio participated in the delegation, he was replaced as head of the Senate by Spyridon Theotokis. Once in Constantinople, however, the delegation quickly realized that the Porte was not interested in recognizing the Islands' independence, but rather in creating a vassal state under Ottoman suzerainty. At the suggestion of the Russian ambassador, Vasily Tomara , the delegation submitted a memorandum to the other ambassadors, requesting the recognition of the Islands as an independent and federal state, under the protection of the European powers. Two of the delegates, the Corfiot Count Antonio Maria Capodistrias and the Zakynthian Count Nikolaos Gradenigos Sigouros Desyllas remained in Constantinople to conduct negotiations with the Porte, while Orio and another delegate, Kladas, were to represent the Ionian cause in Saint Petersburg.[49] The negotiations between Russia, the Porte, and the Islands, led to the signing of the Treaty of Constantinople on 2 April 1800, which created the Septinsular Republic, under joint Russian and Ottoman protection.[50]
The new state proved politically unstable, but retained its precarious autonomy. The islands remained de facto under Russian influence and military protection, becoming thus involved in the Russian conflicts with France and Ali Pasha. The Septinsular Republic survived until 1807, when the
References
- ^ a b Moschonas 1975, p. 382.
- ^ Miller 1903, p. 237.
- ^ a b c Mackridge 2014, p. 3.
- ^ a b Karapidakis 2003, p. 153.
- ^ Karapidakis 2003, pp. 154–155.
- ^ Baeyens 1973, pp. 15–16.
- ^ Miller 1903, p. 238.
- ^ Karapidakis 2003, p. 155.
- ^ a b Karapidakis 2003, pp. 155–156.
- ^ Miller 1903, pp. 236–237.
- ^ Miller 1903, p. 236.
- ^ Karapidakis 2003, p. 156.
- ^ a b Miller 1903, pp. 238–239.
- ^ a b c Karapidakis 2003, p. 157.
- ^ Moschonas 1975, pp. 382–383.
- ^ Heppner 1985, pp. 64–67.
- ^ Tabet 1998, pp. 133, 138–140.
- ^ Baeyens 1973, pp. 18–19, 59.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Moschonas 1975, p. 383.
- ^ Karapidakis 2003, p. 158.
- ^ Heppner 1985, pp. 66–67.
- ^ Karapidakis 2003, pp. 158–159.
- ^ Baeyens 1973, p. 25.
- ^ a b c d e f Moschonas 1975, p. 385.
- ^ Karapidakis 2003, p. 159.
- ^ Baeyens 1973, p. 26.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Moschonas 1975, p. 387.
- ^ Baeyens 1973, pp. 27–28, 30–31.
- ^ Karapidakis 2003, pp. 159–160.
- ^ Moschonas 1975, pp. 385–386.
- ^ Moschonas 1975, p. 386.
- ^ Moschonas 1975, pp. 386–387.
- ^ Baeyens 1973, p. 29.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Moschonas 1975, p. 388.
- ^ Baeyens 1973, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Karapidakis 2003, p. 161.
- ^ Karapidakis 2003, pp. 161–162.
- ^ Baeyens 1973, p. 24.
- ^ a b c Karapidakis 2003, p. 162.
- ^ Moschonas 1975, pp. 387–388.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Moschonas 1975, p. 389.
- ^ Moschonas 1975, pp. 388–389.
- ^ a b c d Moschonas 1975, p. 391.
- ^ a b c d e f g Moschonas 1975, p. 390.
- ^ Moschonas 1975, pp. 390–391.
- ^ Moschonas 1975, pp. 391–392.
- ^ a b c d Moschonas 1975, p. 392.
- ^ Moschonas 1975, p. 393.
- ^ Moschonas 1975, pp. 392–393.
- ^ Moschonas 1975, pp. 393–394.
- ^ Moschonas 1975, pp. 394–399.
- ^ Moschonas 1975, pp. 400–401.
Sources
- Baeyens, Jacques (1973). Les Français à Corfou, 1797–1799 et 1807–1814 [The French in Corfu, 1797–1799 and 1807–1814] (in French). Athens: Institut français d'Athènes. OCLC 2763024.
- Heppner, Harald (1985). "Österreichische Pläne zur Herrschaft über die Ionischen Inseln" [Austrian Plans for Rule over the Ionian Islands]. Balkan Studies (in German). 26 (1): 57–72. ISSN 2241-1674.
- Karapidakis, Nikos (2003). "Τα Επτάνησα: Ευρωπαϊκοί ανταγωνισμοί μετά την πτώση της Βενετίας" [The Heptanese: European rivalries after the fall of Venice]. Ιστορία του Νέου Ελληνισμού 1770–2000, Τόμος 1: Η Οθωμανική κυριαρχία, 1770–1821 [History of Modern Hellenism 1770–2000, Volume 1: Ottoman rule, 1770–1821] (in Greek). Athens: Ellinika Grammata. pp. 151–184. ISBN 960-406-540-8.
- Mackridge, Peter (2014). "Introduction". In Anthony Hirst; Patrick Sammon (eds.). The Ionian Islands: Aspects of their History and Culture. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 1–23. ISBN 978-1-4438-6278-3.
- McKnight, James Lawrence (1965). Admiral Ushakov and the Ionian Republic: The Genesis of Russia's First Balkan Satellite (PhD thesis). University of Wisconsin, Madison. OCLC 47945614.
- JSTOR 549461.
- Moschonas, Nikolaos (1975). "Τα Ιόνια Νησιά κατά την περίοδο 1797–1821" [The Ionian Islands in the period 1797–1821]. In Christopoulos, Georgios A. & Bastias, Ioannis K. (eds.). Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους, Τόμος ΙΑ΄: Ο Ελληνισμός υπό ξένη κυριαρχία (περίοδος 1669 - 1821), Τουρκοκρατία - Λατινοκρατία [History of the Greek Nation, Volume XI: Hellenism under Foreign Rule (Period 1669 - 1821), Turkocracy – Latinocracy] (in Greek). Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon. pp. 382–402. ISBN 978-960-213-100-8.
- Tabet, Xavier (1998). "Bonaparte, Venise et les îles ioniennes: de la politique territoriale à la géopolitique". Cahiers de la Méditerranée (in French). 57 (1): 131–141. .
Further reading
- Bellaire, J.P. (1805). Précis des opérations générales de la Division française du Levant [Precis of the general operations of the French division in the Levant] (in French). Paris: Magimel & Humbert.
- de Rulhière, Chriseuil (1800–1801). Essai sur les isles de Zante, de Cerigo, de Cérigotto et des Strophades, composant le département de la Mer-Égée [Essay on the islands of Zakynthos, of Kythira, of Antikythira and the Strofades, forming the department of Mer-Égée] (in French). Paris: Dessenne.
- Lacroix, Louis (1853). Les Îles de la Grèce [The Islands of Greece] (in French). Firmin Didot. p. 638.
- Lunzi, Ermanno (1860). Storia delle Isole Jonie sotto il reggimento dei Repubblicani Francesi [History of the Ionian Islands under the Regime of the French Republicans] (in Italian). Venice.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Pauthier, G. (1863). Les Îles Ioniennes pendant l'occupation française et le protectorat anglais [The Ionian Islands during the French occupation and the English protectorate] (in French). Paris: Benjamin Duprat.
- Rodocanachi, Emmanuel (1899). Bonaparte et les îles Ioniennes. Un épisode des conquêtes de la République et du premier Empire (1797–1816) [Bonaparte and the Ionian Islands. An episode of the conquests of the Republic and the First Empire (1797–1816)] (in French). F. Alcan.