Mexican Army

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Mexican Army
Ejército Mexicano
Mexican Army emblem
Founded1821
Country Mexico
TypeArmy and air force
RoleNational defense
Size261,773 (2024)
Part ofSecretariat of National Defense
Mexican Armed Forces
Motto(s)Siempre Leales (Always Loyal)
ColorsBlue
Mascot(s)Golden eagle
Anniversaries19 February, Day of the Army.[1]
13 September, Día de los
Mexican Drug War
Commanders
Commander of the ArmyCelestino Ávila Astudillo
Insignia
Guidon

The Mexican Army (

air branch and is the largest part of the Mexican Armed Forces
; it is also known as the National Defense Army.

The Army is under the authority of the Secretariat of National Defense or SEDENA and is headed by the Secretary of National Defence.

It was the first army to adopt (1908) and use (1910) a self-loading rifle, the Mondragón rifle. The Mexican Army has an active duty force of 261,773 men and women in 2024.

History

Antecedents

Pre-Columbian era: native warriors

Main articles:
Mayan warfare
Maquahuitl
.
This page from the Codex Mendoza shows the gradual improvements to equipment and tlahuiztli as a warrior progresses through the ranks from commoner to porter to warrior to captor, and later as a noble progressing in the warrior societies from the noble warrior to "Eagle warrior" to "Jaguar Warrior" to "Otomitl" to "Shorn One" and finally as "Tlacateccatl".
Tepoztōpīlli from the Armeria Real collection in Madrid

In the prehispanic era, there were many indigenous tribes and highly developed city-states in what is now known as central Mexico. The most advanced and powerful kingdoms were those of

Aztec. They had a center for higher education called the Calmecac in Nahuatl, this was where the children of the Aztec priesthood and nobility receive rigorous religious and military training and conveyed the highest knowledge such as: doctrines, divine songs, the science of interpreting codices, calendar skills, memorization of texts, etc. In Aztec society, it was compulsory for all young males, nobles as well as commoners, to join part of the armed forces at the age of 15. Recruited by regional and clan groups (calpulli) the conscripts were organized in units of about 8,000 men (Xiquipilli). These were broken down into 400 strong sub-units. Aztec nobility (some of whom were the children of commoners who had distinguished themselves in battle) led their own serfs on campaign.[3]

Moctezuma Ilhuicamina "The arrow to the sky" (1440–1469) came to extend the domain and the influence of the monarchy of Tenochtitlán. He began to organize trade to the outside regions of the Valley of Mexico
. This was the Mexica ruler who organized the alliance with the lordships of Texcoco and Tlacopan to form the Triple Alliance.

The Aztec established the

Flower Wars as a form of worship; these, unlike the wars of conquest, were aimed at obtaining prisoners for sacrifice to the sun. Combat orders were given by kings (or Lords) using drums or blowing into a sea snail shell that gave off a sound like a horn. Giving out signals using coats of arms was very common. For combat outside of cities, they would organize several groups, only one of which would be involved in action, while the others remained on the alert. When attacking enemy cities, they usually divided their forces into three equal-sized wings, which simultaneously assaulted different parts of the defences – this enabled the leaders to determine which division of warriors had distinguished themselves the most in combat.[4]

Military in the Spanish colonial era

Main article: Military of New Spain
See also: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, Spanish conquest of Yucatán, Spanish conquest of Chiapas, and Chichimeca War

During the 18th century the Spanish colonial forces in the greater Mexico region consisted of regular "Peninsular" regiments sent from Spain itself, augmented by locally recruited provincial and urban militia units of infantry, cavalry and artillery. A few regular infantry and dragoon regiments (e.g. the Regimiento de Mexico) were recruited within Mexico and permanently stationed there.[5] Mounted units of soldados de cuera (so called from the leather protective clothing that they wore)[6] patrolled frontier and desert regions.[7]

Independence

Main article: Mexican War of Independence

In the early morning of 16 September 1810, the Army of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla initiated the independence movement. Hidalgo was followed by his loyal companions, among them Mariano Abasolo, and a small army equipped with swords, spears, slingshots and sticks. Captain General Ignacio Allende was the military brains of the insurgent army in the first phase of the War of Independence and secured several victories over the Spanish Royal Army. Their troops were about 5,000 strong and were later joined by squadrons of the Queen's Regiment where its members in turn contributed infantry battalions and cavalry squadrons to the insurrection cause.

Guanajuato. At center: the Alhóndiga de Granaditas

The Spaniards saw that it was important to defend the Alhóndiga de Granaditas public granary in Guanajuato, which maintained the flow of water, weapons, food and ammunition to the Spanish Royal Army. The insurgents entered Guanajuato and proceeded to lay siege to the Alhóndiga. The insurgents suffered heavy casualties until Juan Jose de los Reyes, the Pípila, fitted a slab of rock on his back to protect himself from enemy fire and crawled to the large wooden door of the Alhóndiga with a torch in hand to set it on fire. With this stunt, the insurgents managed to bring down the door and enter the building and overrun it. Hidalgo headed to Valladolid (now Morelia), which was captured with little opposition. While the Insurgent Army was, by then, over 60,000 strong, it was mostly formed of poorly armed men with arrows, sticks and tillage tools – it had a few guns, which had been taken from Spanish stocks.

In

Felix Maria Calleja, Count of Calderón, and Don Manuel de Flon (and comprising 200 infantrymen, 500 cavalry and 12 cannons) defeated the insurgents, who lost many men as well as the artillery they had obtained at Battle of Monte de las Cruces. On 29 November 1810, Hidalgo entered Guadalajara, the capital of Nueva Galicia
, where he organized his government and the Insurgent Army; he also issued a decree abolishing slavery.

At

battle
with the royalists. During the fierce fighting, one of the insurgents' ammunition wagons exploded, which led to their defeat. The insurgents lost all their artillery, much of their equipment and the lives of many men.

Constitutional decree for the freedom of the Mexican America
Army of the Three Guarantees enters Mexico city on 27 September 1821.

At the

Félix María Calleja
, continued to pursue rebel troops. The fighting evolved into guerrilla warfare.

The next major rebel leader was the priest

José María Morelos y Pavón, who had formerly led the insurgent movement alongside Hidalgo. Morelos fortified the port of Acapulco and took the city of Chilpancingo
. Along the way, Morelos, was joined by Leonardo Bravo, his son Nicholas and his brothers Max, Victor and Miguel Bravo.

Morelos conducted several campaigns in the south, managing to conquer much of the region as he gave orders to the insurgents to promote the writing of the first constitution for the new Mexican nation: the

Francisco Javier Mina and Pedro Moreno
, who were both quickly apprehended and executed.

It was not until late 1820, when

El Plan de Iguala and Iturbide was appointed commander of the Ejército Trigarante
, or The Army of the Three Guarantees. With this new alliance, they were able to enter Mexico City on 27 September 1821, which concluded the Mexican War for Independence.

Pastry War

Main article: Pastry War
French blockade in 1838

The Pastry War was the first French intervention in Mexico. Following the widespread civil disorder that plagued the early years of the Mexican republic, fighting in the streets destroyed a great deal of personal property. Foreigners whose property was damaged or destroyed by rioters or bandits were usually unable to obtain compensation from the government, and began to appeal to their own governments for help.

In 1838, a French

Veracruz
. Virtually the entire Mexican Navy was captured at Veracruz by December 1838. Mexico declared war on France.

With trade cut off, the Mexicans began smuggling imports into

Flour Bluff its name. The United States, ever watchful of its relations with Mexico, sent the schooner Woodbury to help the French in their blockade. Talks between the French Kingdom and the Texan nation occurred and France agreed not to offend the soil or waters of the Republic of Texas. With the diplomatic intervention of the United Kingdom, eventually President Bustamante
promised to pay the 600,000 pesos and the French forces withdrew on 9 March 1839.

U.S. invasion

Main article: Mexican–American War
Battle of Monterrey
The U.S. occupation of Mexico City
General and President Antonio López de Santa Anna in 1852

U.S. territorial expansion under

Bear Flag Revolt
.

On 20 September 1846, the U.S. launched an attack on

Antón Lizardo. In confronting resistance and fortifications at the port of Veracruz, the U.S. Army and Marines implemented an intense bombardment of the city from 22 to 26 March 1847, causing about five hundred civilian deaths and significant damage to homes, buildings, and merchandise. General Winfield Scott and Commodore Matthew C. Perry
capitalized on this civilian suffering: by refusing to allow the consulates of Spain and France to assist in civilian evacuation, they pressed Mexican Gen. Juan Morales to negotiate surrender.

U.S. commodore Matthew C. Perry, who had already captured the town of Frontera, in Tabasco, tried to seize San Juan Bautista (modern Villahermosa), but he was repelled three times by a Mexican garrison of just under three hundred men. U.S. troops were also sent to the California territories with the intention of seizing it. After squads of U.S. troops occupied the City of Los Angeles, Mexican authorities were forced to move to Sonora; but, by the end of September 1846, commander José María Flores was able to gather 500 Mexicans and managed to defeat the U.S. garrison at Los Angeles and then sent detachments to Santa Barbara and San Diego.

After putting up a fierce defense against the U.S. invasion, the Mexican positions along the state of Chihuahua began to fall. These forces had been organized by general José Antonio de Heredia and governor Ángel Trías Álvarez. The cavalry of the latter made several desperate charges against the U.S. that nearly achieved victory, but his inexperience in fighting was evident and, in the end, all the positions gained were lost.

French Intervention

Main article: Second French intervention in Mexico
Monument to General Ignacio Zaragoza, hero of the Battle of Puebla, Cinco de Mayo 1862.
Soldiers of the Mexican Republican Army c1862.

The French intervention was an invasion by an

Kingdom of Spain. It followed President Benito Juárez
's suspension of interest payments to foreign countries on 17 July 1861, which angered Mexico's major creditors: Spain, France and Britain.

Napoleon III of France was the instigator: His foreign policy was based on a commitment to free trade. For him, a friendly government in Mexico provided an opportunity to expand free trade by ensuring European access to important markets, and preventing monopoly by the United States. Napoleon also needed the silver that could be mined in Mexico to finance his empire. Napoleon built a coalition with Spain and Britain at a time the U.S. was engaged in a full-scale civil war. The U.S. protested, but could not intervene directly until its civil war was over in 1865.[8]

The Battle of Puebla, Cinco de Mayo 1862, an important victory for Mexican forces against the French.

The three powers signed the

Veracruz
. When the British and Spanish discovered that the French planned to invade Mexico, they withdrew.

The subsequent French invasion resulted in the

Carlota of Mexico), with the military support of France. France had various interests in this Mexican affair, such as seeking reconciliation with Austria, which had been defeated during the Franco-Austrian War
, counterbalancing the growing U.S. power by developing a powerful Catholic neighbouring empire, and exploiting the rich mines in the north-west of the country.

Mexican Republican forces

General Ramón Corona led extended opposition in Sinaloa against the French intervention.

In 1861, the Mexican Republican Army consisted of ten regular line battalions each of eight companies, and six line cavalry regiments, each of two squadrons. With six batteries of field artillery plus engineers, train and garrison units, the regular army numbered about 12,000 men. Auxiliary forces, comprising state militias and National Guards, provided a further 25 infantry battalions and 25 cavalry squadrons plus some garrison and artillery units. The National Guard of the Federal District of Mexico City amounted to six infantry battalions plus one each of cavalry and artillery. The newly raised corps of Rurales, created on 5 May 1861 as a mounted gendarmerie, numbered 2,200 and served as dispersed units of light cavalry against the French.[9]

While opposed by substantial forces of French regular troops plus Mexican Imperial forces and contingents of foreign volunteers,[10] the Republican Army remained in being as an effective force after the fall of Mexico City in 1863. By 1865 Liberal opposition was being led by a core of 50,000 regular Mexican troops and state National Guards, augmented by approximately 10,000 guerrillas.[11]

Díaz era

Main article: Federal Army
General and President Porfirio Díaz, another hero of the Battle of Puebla and president of Mexico in the late nineteenth century until the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution

Following the French withdrawal and the overthrow of the Imperial regime of Maximilian, the Mexican Republic was re-established in 1867. In 1876,

Porfirio Diaz, a leading general of the anti-Maximilianist forces, became president. He was to retain power until 1910, with only one short break. During the early part of this period of extended rule, Diaz relied essentially on military power to remain in office. However he was able to develop other support bases and the army became a reliable non-political instrument for maintaining internal order.[12]

Diaz undertook a series of reforms intended to modernize the Mexican Army,[13] while at the same time terminating the historic pattern of local commanders attempting to seize power using irregulars or provincial forces.[14] The increasingly elderly[15] generals of the Federal Army were frequently transferred and kept loyal through opportunities for graft. By the early 1900s the large officer corps was benefiting from professional training along Prussian Army lines and improved career opportunities for cadets of middle-class origin.[12] Finally, an efficient mounted police force of rurales took over responsibility for public order,[16] and the army itself was reduced in size by about a third.[17]

A continuing weakness in the Mexican Army throughout the Diaz period was the low morale and motivation of the rank-and-file. They mostly consisted of Indian and mestizo conscripts, forced into service under the random leva system. Some were enlisted as a means of punishment or because of social discrimination, and a number of future revolutionary leaders received their initial military experience in the ranks of the Federal Army.[12]

By 1910, the army numbered about 25,000 men, largely conscripts of Indian origin officered by 4,000 white middle-class officers. While generally well equipped, the Federal Army under Diaz was too small in numbers to offer effective opposition to the revolutionary forces led by

Francisco Madero.[18] During the long period of Porfirian stability, increased reliance had been placed on the new railway network to quickly move small numbers of troops to suppress regional unrest. When faced with widespread revolution during 1910-11 the railway lines proved too vulnerable, regular army strength too limited and state militias too disorganised to control the situation.[19]

Mexican Revolution 1910–1920

Main article: Mexican Revolution
General Victoriano Huerta, who overthrew civilian President Francisco I. Madero in 1913
Alvaro Obregón
, later president of Mexico

The ouster of Porfirio Díaz saw

Manuel Avila Camacho (1940–1946). When Lázaro Cárdenas reorganized the political party founded by Plutarco Elías Calles, he created sectoral representation of groups in Mexico, one of which was the Mexican Army. In the subsequent reorganization of the party, which took place in 1946, the Institutional Revolutionary Party
no longer had a separate sector for the army. No military man has been president of Mexico after 1946.

Contemporary era

General Lázaro Cárdenas, who as president of Mexico 1934–1940 brought the Mexican military under civilian control

Post-revolutionary period

assault rifles
.

The ending of the Diaz regime saw a resurgence of numerous local forces led by revolutionary generals. In 1920, more than 80,000 Mexicans were under arms,

Colegio Militar (Military Academy), established the Escuela Superior de Guerra (Staff College), and raised the salaries and improved the conditions of service of the rank and file of the regular army. In spite of an abortive generals' revolt in 1927, the result was a professional army obedient to the central government.[22]

During this period the army was reduced in numbers through the disbandment of twenty mounted cavalry regiments, ten infantry battalions and the majority of the specialist railroad units previously required. In 1937 a process of accelerated modernisation began with the creation of companies of light tanks, mechanised infantry and motorised anti-aircraft batteries.[23]

During the 1930s, the political role of the officer corps was reduced by the governing Revolutionary Party and a workers' militia was established, outnumbering the regular army by two to one. By the end of World War II, the Mexican Army had become a strictly professional force focused on national defense rather than political involvement.[24]

Mexican Drug War

Main article:
Mexican Drug War

Although violence between drug cartels has been occurring long before the war began, the government held a generally passive stance regarding cartel violence during the 1990s and the early years of the 21st century. That changed on 11 December 2006, when newly elected

President Felipe Calderón sent 6,500 federal troops to the state of Michoacán to end drug violence there. This action is regarded as the first major retaliation made against the cartel violence, and is generally viewed as the starting point of the war between the government and the drug cartels.[25]
As time progressed, Calderón continued to escalate his anti-drug campaign, in which there are now about 45,000 troops involved along with state and federal police forces.

In recent times, the Mexican military has largely participated in efforts against drug trafficking. The Operaciones contra el narcotrafico (Operations against drug trafficking), for example, describes its purpose in regards to "the performance of the Mexican Army and Air Force in the permanent campaign against the drug trafficking is sustained properly in the duties that the Executive of the Nation grants to the armed forces", for according to Article 89, Section VI of the Constitution of the Mexican United States, it is the duty of the President of the Republic of the United Mexican States, as Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, to ensure that the Mexican Armed Forces perform its mandate of national security within and outside the state borders.

Structure

Mexican Air Force cadets march during the Mexican Independence day military parade in Mexico City on 27 July 2012.

The Army is under the authority of the

National Defense Secretariat
or SEDENA and is headed by the Secretary of National Defence - simultaneously a member of the central government and (the sole) four-star general. His counterpart is the Secretary of the Navy, who is a member of the central government and the sole four-star admiral.

The National Defence Secretariat has three components: a national headquarters, territorial commands, and independent units. The Secretary of National Defence delegates overall command of the Army thru the office of Commander of the Army, a divisional general-ranked officer, who leads the service via a centralized command system and many general officers and is appointed and relieved by the Secretary. The Army uses a modified continental staff system in its headquarters. The Mexican Air Force is a separate service under the SEDENA. Recruitment of personnel happens from ages 18 through 21 if secondary education was finished, 22 if High school was completed. Recruitment after age 22 is impossible in the regular army; only auxiliary posts are available. As of 2009, starting salary for Mexican army recruits was $6,000 Mexican pesos (US$500) a month with a lifetime $10,000 peso (approximately US$833) monthly pension for widows of soldiers killed in action.[26]

The principal units of the Mexican army are ten infantry brigades and a number of independent regiments and infantry battalions. The main maneuver elements of the army are organized in three corps, each consisting of three to four infantry brigades (plus other units), all based in and around Mexico City and its metropolitan area. Distinct from the brigade formations, independent regiments and battalions are assigned to zonal garrisons (52 in total) in each of the country's 12 military regions. Infantry battalions, composed of approximately 300–350 troops, generally are deployed in each zone, and certain zones are assigned an additional motorized cavalry regiment or an artillery regiment.[27]

Regional command

Heroic Military Academy (Mexico) with a golden eagle
(September 2004).
Every afternoon, a Mexican Army platoon lowers the monumental flag in Constitution Square or Zócalo

The territorial organization of the Mexican Army includes twelve Military Regions (Regiónes militares (RM)). Each RM is commanded by a senior officer in the rank of Divisional General of the General Staff (General de División Diplomado de Estado Mayor), a

two-star general
. Operational needs determine how many zones are in each region, with corresponding increases and decreases in troop strength. Each commander of the Military Region is appointed and relieved by the Commander of the Army.

Usually on the secretary of defence's recommendation, the senior zone commander is also the commander of the military region containing the military zone. A military zone commander has jurisdiction over every unit operating in his territory, including the Rurales (Rural Defense Force) that occasionally have been a Federal political counterweight to the power of state governors. Zone commanders provide the national defence secretary with socio-political conditions intelligence about rural areas. Moreover, they traditionally have acted in co-ordination with the Secretariat of National Defense (SEDENA) on planning and resources deployment.

Territorial organization of the Mexican Army
Military zone HQ Notes
First Military Region (I Región militar)

HQ in Mexico City

Covers the capital

Hidalgo and Morelos
.

1st Military Zone (1/a. Z.M.) Tacubaya, Mexico City
18th Military Zone (18/a. Z.M.) Pachuca, Hidalgo
22nd Military Zone (22/a. Z.M.) Santa María Rayón, Estado de México
24th Military Zone (24/a. Z.M.) Cuernavaca, Morelos
37th Military Zone (37/a. Z.M.)
Santa Lucía, Estado de México
Second Military Region (II Región militar)

HQ in Mexicali, Baja California

Covers the states of Baja California, Baja California Sur and Sonora.

2nd Military Zone (2/a. Z.M.) Tijuana, Baja California
3rd Military Zone (3/a. Z.M.) La Paz, Baja California Sur
4th Military Zone (4/a. Z.M.) Hermosillo, Sonora
40th Military Zone (40/a. Z.M.) Guerrero Negro, Baja California Sur
45th Military Zone (45/a. Z.M.)
Nogales, Sonora
Third Military Region (III Región militar)

HQ in Mazatlán, Sinaloa

Covers the states of Sinaloa and Durango.

9th Military Zone (9/a. Z.M.) Culiacán, Sinaloa
10th Military Zone (10/a. Z.M.)
Durango, Durango
Fourth Military Region (IV Región militar)

HQ in Monterrey, Nuevo León

Covers the states of Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí and Tamaulipas.

7th Military Zone (7/a. Z.M.) Apodaca, Nuevo León
8th Military Zone (8/a. Z.M.) Reynosa, Tamaulipas
12th Military Zone (12/a. Z.M.)
San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí
48th Military Zone (48/a. Z.M.) Ciudad Victoria, Tamaulipas
Fifth Military Region (V Región militar)

HQ in Guadalajara, Jalisco

Covers the states of Aguascalientes, Colima, Jalisco, Nayarit and Zacatecas.

11th Military Zone (11/a. Z.M.) Guadalupe, Zacatecas
13th Military Zone (13/a. Z.M.) Tepic, Nayarit
14th Military Zone (14/a. Z.M.)
Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes
15th Military Zone (15/a. Z.M.) Zapopan, Jalisco
20th Military Zone (20/a. Z.M.)
Colima, Colima
41st Military Zone (41/a. Z.M.) Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco
Sixth Military Region (VI Región militar)

HQ in Veracruz, Veracruz

Covers the states of

Veracruz
.

19th Military Zone (19/a. Z.M.) Tuxpan, Veracruz
23rd Military Zone (23/a. Z.M.) Panotla, Tlaxcala
25th Military Zone (25/a. Z.M.) Puebla, Puebla
26th Military Zone (26/a. Z.M.) Lencero, Veracruz
29th Military Zone (29/a. Z.M.) Minatitlán, Veracruz
Seventh Military Region (VII Región militar)

HQ in Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas

Covers the states of Chiapas and Tabasco.

30th Military Zone (30/a. Z.M.) Villahermosa, Tabasco
31st Military Zone (31/a. Z.M.) Rancho Nuevo, Chiapas
36th Military Zone (36/a. Z.M.) Tapachula, Chiapas
38th Military Zone (38/a. Z.M.) Tenosique, Tabasco
39th Military Zone (39/a. Z.M.) Ocosingo, Chiapas
Eighth Military Region (VIII Región militar)

HQ in Ixcotel, Oaxaca

Covers the state of Oaxaca.

28th Military Zone (28/a. Z.M.) Ixcotel, Oaxaca
44th Military Zone (44/a. Z.M.) Miahuatlán, Oaxaca
46th Military Zone (46/a. Z.M.) Ixtepec, Oaxaca
Ninth Military Region (IX Región militar)

HQ in Chilpancingo, Guerrero

Covers the state of Guerrero.

27th Military Zone (27/a. Z.M.) Pie de la Cuesta, Guerrero
35th Military Zone (35/a. Z.M.) Chilpancingo, Guerrero
Tenth Military Region (X Región militar)

HQ in Mérida, Yucatán

Covers the states of

Yucatán
.

32nd Military Zone (32/a. Z.M.) Valladolid, Yucatán
33rd Military Zone (33/a. Z.M.)
Campeche, Campeche
34th Military Zone (34/a. Z.M.) Chetumal, Quintana Roo
Eleventh Military Region (XI Región militar)

HQ in Torreón, Coahuila

Covers the states of Chihuahua and Coahuila.

5th Military Zone (5/a. Z.M.) Chihuahua, Chihuahua
6th Military Zone (6/a. Z.M.) Saltillo, Coahuila
42nd Military Zone (42/a. Z.M.) Hidalgo del Parral, Chihuahua
47th Military Zone (47/a. Z.M.) Piedras Negras, Coahuila
Twelfth Military Region (XII Región militar)

HQ in Irapuato, Guanajuato

Covers the states of Guanajuato, Michoacán and Querétaro.

16th Military Zone (16/a. Z.M.) Sarabia, Guanajuato
17th Military Zone (17/a. Z.M.)
Querétaro, Querétaro
21st Military Zone (21/a. Z.M.) Morelia, Michoacán
43rd Military Zone (43/a. Z.M.) Apatzingán, Michoacán

The commanding officer of a military zone has as at the least an independent infantry battalion under his jurisdiction, but also takes operational control of units deployed to his MZ area of responsibility. Force strength varies greatly from a single infantry battalion in the 3rd Military Zone covering the relatively peaceful area of Baja California Sur[29] to over 10 infantry battalions, separate infantry companies and motorized cavalry regiments plus additional conventional and SF units on rotation in the 9th Military Zone covering the state of Sinaloa,[30] where government troops are fighting the eponymous drug cartel. The Mexican Air Force, which is an independent military service under the SEDENA, has its own territorial organization, separate from that of the Mexican Army. It has four air force regions: Northwest (Región Aérea del Noroeste, HQ in Hermosillo, Sonora), Northeast (Región Aérea del Noreste, HQ in Chihuahua, Chihuahua) Central (Región Aérea del Centro, HQ at Santa Lucía AFB, Estado de México) and the Southeast Air Force Region (Región Aérea del Sureste, HQ at Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas). Each new commanding officer of an air force region enters the appointment as a Wing General Pilot-Aviator of the Air Force Staff (General de Ala Piloto Aviador Diplomado de Estado Mayor Aéreo) - a two-star general and midway through his term he is promoted to a Division General Pilot-Aviator of the Air Force Staff (General de División Piloto Aviador Diplomado de Estado Mayor Aéreo) - a three-star general.[31] A similar territorial organization is also implemented in the Mexican Navy with Naval Regions and Naval Zones as counterparts to the army territorial organization.[32]

Tactical units

Paratroopers
(March 2009).

Separate from the military regions and zones are an increasing number of brigades and some independent regiments and infantry battalions. These brigades are grouped into four corps:

  • 1st Army Corps (1er Cuerpo de Ejército (ICE)) - based in and around Mexico City and its metropolitan area. The corps consists of the 1st Armored Brigade, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Separate Infantry Brigades and the army's sole 1st Combat Engineer Brigade.[33] Additionally 3 armored brigades (2nd, 3rd and 4th) and 3 light infantry brigades (4th, 5th and 6th) separate from the 1st Army Corps, but based in the same area close to the capital complete the Mexican Army's maneuver formations.
  • Special Forces Corps (Cuerpo de Fuerzas Especiales) - HQ, training center and the bulk of special forces battalions are based in Temamatla in the State of Mexico. The corps has 3 SF brigades headquartered in Puebla, Puebla (1st), Tijuana, Baja California (2nd) and Ixtepec, Oaxaca (3rd) and the SF battalions are re-assigned between them as per operational requirements.
  • Military Police Corps (Cuerpo de Policía Militar) - the corps has previously been used to augment the internal security initiatives of the government in the combat against the drug cartels and military police brigades as well as individual personnel have been transferred in the past to the newly formed (and consequently defunct Federal Police, supplemented by its Gendarmerie Division, also defunct). New MP brigades were later formed to make up for the ones that were transferred. The administration of President Enrique Peña Nieto set the ambitious plan for the expansion of the Military Police from 3 to 12 MP brigades - one for each military region.[34] By the end of his term there were ten active military police brigades:
    • 1st Military Police Brigade (1/a. Brigada de Policía Militar) - Campo Militar 1-A, Mexico City
    • 2nd Military Police Brigade (2/a. Brigada de Policía Militar) - Air Base Nr. 1 - Santa Lucía, Tecámac, State of México[35]
    • 3/a. Brigada de Policía Militar - El Sauz, Sinaloa[36]
    • 4/a. Brigada de Policía Militar - General Escobedo, Nuevo León[37]
    • 5/a. Brigada de Policía Militar - San Miguel de los Jagüeyes, State of México[38]
    • 6/a. Brigada de Policía Militar - Puebla, Puebla[39]
    • 7/a. Brigada de Policía Militar - Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas[40]
    • 10/a. Brigada de Policía Militar - Isla Mujeres Quintana Roo[41]
    • 11/a. Brigada de Policía Militar - San Pedro de las Colonias Coahuila[42]
    • 12/a. Brigada de Policía Militar - Irapuato, Guanajuato[43][44]

Each MP brigade has three line military police battalions (sing.: Batallón de Policía Militar) and one special operations military police battalion (Batallón de Operaciones Especiales de Policía Militar, equipped with

Plasan Sand Cat tactical armored cars) plus support units. Special Operations MP Bns carry the number of their parent brigade, line MP Bns are numbered in sequence, starting from 1st, 2nd and 3rd in the 1st MP Brigade, 4th, 5th and 6th in the 2nd MP Bde etc. up to 34th, 35th and 36th in the 12th Military Police Brigade, with battalion numbers 22nd - 27th retained for the non-active 8th and 9th MP Brigades. The MPC's involvement in the internal security policies is also present with the Federal Police's successor agency - the National Guard. In 2020 the NG had a strength of ca. 80 000 personnel.[45] and in 2021 this number has increased to 102 000 with a goal set at 150 000.[46] This rapid increase capitalizes heavily on the resources of the military. According to the Mexican Instituto Nacional de Transparencia 31 431 former Army and 6 337 former Navy military police personnel joined the National Guard. Its 8 training centers (Centros de Adiestramiento) are located in and rely on the resources of the army military police installations: two (one main and one NCO) training centers are located at the Campo Militar 37-C in San Miguel de los Jagüeyes, Municipality of Huehuetoca, State of México at the base of the 5th Military Police Brigade. The other six training centers are located at the military police bases in Sauz, Sinaloa (3rd MP Bde), San Pedro de las Colonias, Coahuila (11th MP Bde), Apodaca, Nuevo León (4th MP Bde), Puebla (6th MP Bde), Irapuato (12th MP Bde) and Isla Mujeres (10th MP Bde). The main reasoning behind the formation of the National Guard was to reduce the involvement of the military in the Mexican drug war, but the implementation has negated that to a great extend with the NG relying heavily on the military for staffing, training,[47] basing and operational control. On the latter point the NG's units are called Battalions Type B (sing.: Batallón Tipo B)[48] to distinguish them from the 'regular' infantry and MP battalions of the Mexican Army, all 85 Battalions Type B are based in army bases and are assigned to the 12 military regions of the Army.[49]

  • Presidential Guard Corps (Cuerpo de Guardias Presidenciales) - the special department of the President's Office, the Estado Mayor Presidencial used to command the Army, Air Force and Navy assets tasked with the security, land and air transport and the logistical requirements of the Office. As one of his first political initiatives upon entering the Presidency Andrés Manuel López Obrador has put to vote in the Mexican Senate the disbanding of the EMP. The vote passed and the department was dismantled at the end of 2018. At that time it included 6 026 servicemen and women from the three armed services, organised into:
    • Staff (Estado Mayor)
    • Presidential Guard Corps (Cuerpo de Guardias Presidenciales)
      • Headquarters (Cuartel General)
      • 6 presidential guard battalions (1/er. - 6/o. Batallón de Guardias Presidenciales)
      • 1st Transport Battalion (1/er. Batallón de Transportes)
      • 1st Supply Company (1/a. Compañía de Intendencia')
      • 24th Presidential Guard Marine Infantry Battalion (24/o. Batallón de Infantería de Marina de Guardias Presidenciales) - as the single Department of the Navy asset in the EMP and infantry-oriented, the 24/o. BIMGP was attached to the CGP.
      • 1st Mounted Cavalry Group (1.er Grupo de Caballería Montado)
        • Honor Guard Cavalry Squadron (Escuadrón de Caballería de Honores)
        • Horse Artillery Battery (Batería Hipómovil)
      • 1st Combat Engineer Company (1/a. Compañía de Ingenieros de Combate)
      • Honor Guard Artillery Battery (Batería de Artillería de Honores)
      • Music Band(Banda de Música)
    • General Coordination Department of the Presidential Transport Aircraft (Coordinación General de Transportes Aéreos Presidenciales) (a staff department, part of the Staff mentioned above)
      • Presidential Transport Air Group (Grupo Aéreo de Transportes Presidenciales) (since the disbanding of the EMP the Coordinación General has been closed down too and the GATP became the 6th Air Group of the Mexican Air Force)

After the closure of the EMP the servicemen and women have lost their special status of personnel distinct from the three services and were integrated back into the Army, Air Force and Navy. Government plans call for the transformation of the Presidential Guard Corps into two military police brigades.[50]

Distinct from the brigade formations are independent regiments (all regiments are battalion-sized) and battalions assigned to zonal garrisons. Groups are company-sized units. The different types of units of the Mexican Army follow a sequential listing starting from 1. onwards. They include the following:[51]

  • 110 infantry battalions (sing.: Batallón de infantería) (with more being planned for activation. 110 is the total quantity of infantry battalions assigned to military zones and assigned to brigades)
  • 24 separate infantry companies (sing.: Compañía de infantería no encuadrada)
  • 3 parachute rifle battalions (sing.: Batallón de fusileros paracaidistas - 1st Batallón is part of the Army, 2nd and 3rd formally belong to the Air Force)
  • 25 motorized cavalry regiments (sing.: Regimiento de caballería motorizado)
  • 9 armored reconnaissance regiments (sing.: Regimiento blindado de reconocimiento)
  • 8 mechanized regiments (sing.: Regimiento mecanizado)
  • 9 artillery regiments (sing.: Regimiento de artillería)
  • 8 mortar group of caliber 81-mm (sing.: Grupo de morteros de calibre 81-mm)
  • 6 recoil-less rifle groups of caliber 106-mm (sing.: Grupo de cañones sin retroceso de calibre 106-mm)
  • ? combat engineer battalions (sing.: Batallón de ingenieros de combate) (sources, which have reported previously small numbers of the quantity of combat engineer battalions in the Mexican Army are outdated, as official statements by the government report 8 combat engineer battalions deployed from the Mexican Army and Air Force deployed to the states of Baja California Sur, Chiapas, Ciudad de México, Estado de México, Guerrero, Jalisco,  Veracruz and Yucatán in the summer of 2021 to deal with the aftermath of torrential rains and hurricanes.[52])

Infantry battalions are small, each of approximately 400 troops, and are generally deployed in each zone. Certain zones are also assigned a light armored cavalry regiment, mechanized infantry regiment or one of the 24 field artillery regiments and 10 field artillery battalions. Smaller detachments are often detailed to patrol more inaccessible areas of the countryside, helping to maintain order and resolve disputes.

Other than the Special Forces and the Military Police Brigades, the Mexican Army includes the following combat brigades:

  • armored - four Armored Brigades (sing.: Brigada blindada), each composed of two armored reconnaissance regiments, two mechanized regiments and smaller support units. A ninth armored reconnaissance regiment under the Army HQ functions as the training unit.
  • infantry - three separate infantry brigades under 1st Army Corps and three light infantry brigades directly under army HQ. Each brigade has three infantry battalions. The light brigades lack the organic artillery and engineer units of the separate brigades.
    • 1st Separate Infantry Brigade (1/a. Brigada de Infantería Independiente) - Colonia Santa Teresa, State of Mexico
    • 2nd Separate Infantry Brigade (2/a. Brigada de Infantería Independiente) - Campo Militar No.1 - Mexico City
    • 3rd Separate Infantry Brigade (3/a. Brigada de Infantería Independiente) - Campo Militar No.1 - Mexico City
    • 4th Light Infantry Brigade (4/a. Brigada de Infantería Ligera) - Irapuato, Guanajuato
    • 5th Light Infantry Brigade (5/a. Brigada de Infantería Ligera) - Ixcotel, Oaxaca
    • 6th Light Infantry Brigade (6/a. Brigada de Infantería Ligera) - Campo Militar No.1 - Mexico City
  • airborne
    • Parachute Rifle Brigade (Brigada de Fusileros Paracaidistas) - Campo Militar No.1 - Mexico City (directly subordinated to Army HQ)
  • engineers
    • 1st Combat Engineer Brigade (1/a. Brigada de Ingenieros de Combate) - Campo Militar No.1 - Mexico City (subordinated to the 1st Army Corps)

Special Forces Corps

The Army has a

Special Forces Brigades, a High Command GAFE group, a GAFE group assigned to the Airborne Brigade
, 74 independent Special Forces Battalions and 36 Amphibious Special Forces Groups.

The Special Forces Brigades consist of nine SF battalions. The 1st Brigade has the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Battalions; the 2nd Brigade has the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th Battalions; and the 3rd Brigade has the 4th and 9th Battalions and a Rapid Intervention Force group.

The

High Command GAFE
is a group with no more than 100 members and is specially trained in counter-terrorist tactics. They receive orders directly from the President of Mexico.

The Amphibious Special Forces Groups are trained in amphibious warfare, they give the army extended abilities in riverline and coastal operations in peacetime and in war.

Special Operations Forces

Name Headquarters Structure and purpose
Cuerpo de Fuerzas Especiales (Special Forces Corps) Classified
Grupo Aeromóvil de Fuerzas Especiales del Alto Mando
 (High Command Airmobil Group Special Forces) 		Classified
Grupos Anfibios de Fuerzas Especiales (Amphibious Special Forces Group) Classified

Estado Mayor Presidencial

Seal of the Estado Mayor Presidencial.

The

Vicente Fox Quesada a new regulation of the Presidential Guard was issued and published by the Official Gazette of the Federation on 23 January of that same year. This ordinance updated the structure, organization and operation of the Presidential guard as a technical military body and administrative unit of the Presidency to facilitate the implementation of the powers of his office.[54][55]

The EMP was dissolved in 2018 and its military arm, the Presidential Guards Corps, has had its command becoming a joint service formation, with its units coming under the collective responsibility of the Secretariats of National Defense, Security, and the Navy, its three Army infantry battalions now converted into military police battalions as part of now two military police brigades under the revived National Guard.

Paratrooper Corps

  • Brigada de Fusileros Paracaidistas (Parachute Rifle Brigade) is a three-battalion paratrooper unit created in 1969 within the Mexican Army but utilizing aircraft from the Air Force. Its headquarters is in Mexico City and its training takes place in the Centro de Adiestramiento de Paracaidismo (Airborne Training Center). A battalion can be deployed rapidly to any part of the country.

Ranks

Main article: Military ranks of Mexico

Commissioned officer ranks

The rank insignia of

commissioned officers
.

Rank group General / flag officers Senior officers Junior officers Officer cadet
 Mexican Army[56]
 General Division General Brigade General Brigadier General Colonel Lieutenant Colonel Major First Captain Second Captain First Lieutenant Sub-Lieutenant
Secretario de la defensa nacional
 		General de división General de brigada General brigadier Coronel Teniente coronel Mayor Capitán primero Capitán segundo Teniente Subteniente

Other ranks

The rank insignia of non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel.

Rank group Senior NCOs Junior NCOs Enlisted
 Mexican Army[56]
Sargento primero Sargento segundo Cabo Soldado

Military industry

Mexican Army band playing.
Mi-26
heavy transport helicopter.
Mexican army Humvee on 16 September 2007 parade

Since the start of the 21st century, the Army has been steadily modernising to become competitive with the armies of other American countries

FX-05 rifle designed in Mexico and the commitment to researching, designing and manufacturing domestic military systems such as military electronics and body armor.[58]

The Mexican military counts on three of the following departments to fulfill the general tasks of the Army and Air Force:[59]

Equipment

New Mexican army uniform

Vehicles

Mexican Army ERC 90 F1 Lynx during the Independence day Parade.
VCR-TT 6X6 APC on Madero Street in downtown Mexico City after Independence Day celebrations
Mexican cavalry
Mexican Army vehicle inventory
Vehicle/System Type Versions Origin Quantity
Armored fighting vehicles
Panhard ERC 90
 Reconnaissance vehicle ERC 90 F1 Lynx, Armed with 90mm F1 Cannon France 260 in active service

(105 to be upgraded) [2]

DN-V Bufalo Self-propelled artillery Armed with 75mm M8 Howitzer Mexico Unknown quantity in active service
DN Mortar Carrier Mortar carrier Armed with 81mm Mortar Mexico Unknown quantity in active service
M8 Greyhound
Armoured car
 Small numbers modernized with a 20mm Cannon Installed. United States Less than 10 in active service, all modernized
DN-IV Caballo Reconnaissance vehicle Armed with 20mm Automatic Cannon Mexico Very few in active service
DN-3 Reconnaissance vehicle Armed with 25mm Automatic Cannon Mexico Very few in active service
DN-V Toro Reconnaissance vehicle Armed with 20mm Automatic Cannon Mexico 340 in active service
Max Mex-1
Armoured car
 Armed With 20mm Automatic Cannon United States
Mexico 		Around 50–55 in active service
Sedena 8x8 Vehicle Infantry fighting vehicle Armed with possibly a 40mm Cannon, but Unknown type of Cannon Mexico 1 prototype in active service, possible in production.
Sedena-Henschel HWK -13 Infantry fighting vehicle HWK-13 (IFV) Armed with 20mm Automatic Cannon Mexico
Germany 		In service, unknown quantity
Sedena-Henschel HWK-11
Armored personnel carrier
 HWK-11 (APC Version) Armed With one 7.62 mm Machine Gun, All Modernized Mexico
Germany 		52 in active service (including 12 delivered from Germany in 1964)
AMX-VCI Armored personnel carrier DNC-1: upgraded by SEDENA armed with 20mm Cannon France
Upgraded by Mexico 		809 in active service
Panhard VCR[65] Armored personnel carrier VCR-TT, Armed with M2 Browning 12.7mm Machine Gun France 46 in active service
DNC-2 Armored personnel carrier Armed with one 7.62 mm Machine Gun Mexico Unknown quantity in active service, still in production.
El Cimarron Armored personnel carrier Armed with M2 Browning 12.7mm Machine Gun Mexico Unknown quantity in active service, but in production
Véhicule Blindé Léger Scout car VBL MILAN France 1,231 in active service
Oshkosh Sand Cat[66]
 Light armored vehicle Sand Cat – 245 Sandcats were delivered and have Type IV level Armored protection[67] Israel
United States 		245 in active service
DN-XI Light armored vehicle The DN-XI is a Mexican designed armored van based on a Ford truck chassis. 100 on order.[68] 1,000 to be acquired by 2018. Armed with M2 Browning 12.7mm Machine Gun or 40mm Automatic Grenade Launcher.[69] Mexico 1,000+ in active service still in production
DN-VI Reconnaissance vehicle Armed with one 7.62 mm Machine Gun Mexico Unknown, but few in active service
Humvee[70]
Armoured car
 HMMWV Armored Car Versions are armed with single M2 Browning 12.7mm Machine Gun or 40mm Automatic Grenade Launcher. United States 3,335 order in 2014 + 2,200 order more in 2016. 5,535 in active service (including light utility and armored car versions)
Infantry transport vehicles
Chevrolet Silverado Pickup truck GMT900 United States
Mexico 		In service
Ford F-Series Pickup truck F-150 United States
Mexico 		In service
Dodge Ram
 Pickup truck Variants of 4x4 and 6x6 United States In service
Yamaha Rhino
Utility terrain vehicle
 Rhino Japan In service
Chevrolet Cheyenne Pickup truck GMT K2XX United States In service
Trucks
M520 Goer Heavy tactical truck M520 United States In service
Freightliner Trucks Truck M2 United States In service
M35 2-1/2 ton cargo truck
Military truck
 M35 United States In service
DINA S.A. Trucks S-Series / D-Series Mexico In service
Mercedes-Benz Truck L-Series Germany In service
Chevrolet Truck Kodiak United States In service
Freightliner Trucks Satellite communications truck Intelligence United States In service

Infantry weapons

FX-05 Xiuhcoatl (Fire Serpent) assault rifle
G3A3 battle rifle
MP5
P7M13
PSG1
Inventory
Name Caliber Type Origin
Heckler & Koch G3 7.62×51mm NATO Battle rifle. Made under license from Heckler & Koch, being replaced by the FX-05 Xiuhcoatl Rifle Germany
FX-05 Xiuhcoatl 5.56×45mm NATO Assault rifle, Carbine, short-carbine rifle and light machine gun depending on version, this rifle is the standard Mexican Army service rifle. Mexico
Heckler & Koch HK33 5.56×45mm NATO Assault rifle. Made under license from Heckler & Koch Germany
M4 carbine 5.56×45mm NATO Assault rifle and carbine rifle United States
Heckler & Koch MP5 9×19mm Parabellum Submachine gun. Made under license from Heckler & Koch Germany
FN P90 5.7×28mm
Personal defence weapon[71]
 Belgium
Mendoza HM-3 9x19mm Parabellum and .380 ACP Submachine gun, made and designed in Mexico by Productos Mendoza. Mexico
M1911
 .45 ACP Semi-automatic pistol United States
Mexico
Heckler & Koch P7 9×19mm Parabellum Semi-automatic pistol. Made under license from Heckler & Koch Germany
Sig Sauer P226
 9x19mm Parabellum Semi-automatic pistol Switzerland
Beretta 92FS
 9×19mm Parabellum Semi-automatic pistol Italy
FN Five-seveN
 5.7×28mm Semi-automatic pistol Belgium
HK PSG1
Morelos Bicentenario		 7.62×51mm NATO Sniper rifle. Made under license from Heckler & Koch Germany
Barrett M82 .50 BMG
Anti-material rifle
 United States
M249 5.56x45mm NATO Light machine gun United States
FN Minimi 5.56×45mm NATO Light machine gun Belgium
Heckler & Koch HK21 7.62×51mm NATO General-purpose machine gun. Made under license from Heckler & Koch Germany
Rheinmetall MG 3
 7.62×51mm NATO General-purpose machine gun. Made under license from Rheinmetall Germany
M2 Browning machine gun
 .50 BMG Heavy machine gun United States
M-134 minigun
 7.62×51mm NATO Rotary machinegun United States
Mk 19
40×53mm
 Automatic grenade launcher United States
Milkor MGL
40×46mm
 Grenade launcher South Africa
M203 grenade launcher 40×46mm Grenade launcher United States
Heckler & Koch AG-C/GLM
 40×46mm Grenade launcher Germany
M67 grenade 64mm
Hand grenade
 United States
Mondragón F-08
 7×57mm Mauser Semi-automatic rifle used for ceremonial occasions, now being retired Mexico
Winchester Model 54 7.62×51mm
Bolt-action rifle
used for ceremonial occasions		 United States
CornerShot Weapon accessory Israel
United States
Remington 870
12 gauge
 Gauge
pump-action shotgun
used by Army police		 United States

Artillery

Name Type Versions Origin Status
Self-propelled artillery
SDN Humvee Tank destroyer mounted on Humvee chassis 106mm Mexico In service
Artillery
M101 Howitzer Towed howitzer 105mm United States In service
OTO Melara Mod 56 Howitzer Towed howitzer 105mm Italy In service
M90 Norinco Towed howitzer 105mm People's Republic of China In service
M-56 Towed Howitzer 105mm Serbia In service
M198 Howitzer Towed howitzer 155mm United States In service
TRF1 Towed howitzer 155mm France In service
M114 Towed howitzer 155mm United States In service
M8 Howitzer Howitzer 75mm United States
Mexico 		In service
Mortier 120mm Rayé Tracté Modèle F1 Heavy mortar 120mm France In service
Soltam K6 Heavy mortar 120mm Israel In service
M30 mortar Heavy mortar 106mm United States In service
M29 mortar Medium mortar 81mm United States In service
M1 mortar Medium mortar 81mm United States In service
Mortero 81 Medium mortar 81mm Mexico In service
Brandt 60 mm LR Gun-mortar Light mortar 60mm France In service
M2 mortar Light mortar 60mm United States In service
M19 Light mortar 60mm United States In service
Mortero 60 Light mortar 60mm Mexico In service
Bofors L70
Anti aircraft autocannon
 40mm Sweden In service
Oerlikon 35mm twin cannon
 Anti aircraft autocannon 35mm Switzerland In service
2A45 Sprut Anti-tank gun 125mm Russian Federation In service

Anti-armor weapons

RPG-29 Rocket propelled grenade
MILAN
Name Type Versions Origin Information
Anti-tank weapons
Carl Gustaf 8.4cm recoilless rifle
 Multi-role recoilless rifle 84mm Sweden In service
RPG-7
Anti-tank rocket
 Depends on Warhead Russia In service
SMAW
 Anti-tank rocket 105mm United States In service
RPG-29[72] Anti-tank rocket 105mm Russia
Mexico 		Locally produced in Mexico by Sedena, in service
Anti-armor recoilless rifles
M40 106 mm recoilless rifle Recoilless rifle 106mm United States Mounted on Humvees, in service
Anti-tank guided missiles
MILAN Anti-tank guided missile France Mounted on VBL vehicles, in service

See also

Further reading

Colonial era

  • Archer, Christon I. The Army in Bourbon Mexico, 1760–1810. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1977.
  • Archer, Christon I. "The Officer Corps in New Spain: the Martial Career, 1759–1821." Jahrbuch für Geschicte von Staat, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Lateinamerikas 19 (1982).
  • McAlister, Lyle. The "Fuero Militar" in New Spain, 1764–1800. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1957.

Post-Independence

  • Camp, Roderic Ai. Generals in the Palacio: The Military in Modern Mexico. New York: Oxford University Press 1992.
  • Díaz Díaz, Fernando. Caudillos y caciques: Antonio López de Santa Anna y Juan Alvarez. Mexico City: El Colegio de México 1972.
  • Fowler, Will. Military Political Identity and Reformism in Independent Mexico: An Analysis of the Memorias de Guerra (1821–1855). London: Institute of Latin American Studies 1996.
  • Lieuwen, Edwin. Mexican Militarism: The Political Rise and Fall of the Revolutionary Army. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1968.

Neufeld, Stephen B. The Blood Contingent: The Military and the Making of Modern Mexico, 1876–1911. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2017.

  • Ronfeldt, David, editor. The Modern Mexican Military: A Reassessment. La Jolla: Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California San Diego 1984.
  • Serrano, Mónica. "The Armed Branch of the State: Civil-Military Relations in Mexico," Journal of Latin American Studies 27 (1995)
  • Vanderwood, Paul. Disorder and Progress: Bandits, Police, and Mexican Development. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1981.
  • Wager, J. Stephen. The Mexican Military: Approaches to the 21st Century: Coping with a New World Order. Carlisle PA: Strategic Studies Institute: U.S. Army War College 1994.

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External links

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