Military occupations by the Soviet Union
This article possibly contains original research. Based on non-generalized sources. Patchwork content. (November 2021) |
During
Below is a list of various forms of
Poland (1939–1956)
Poland was the first country to be occupied by the
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After the end of
Soviet troops (the Northern Group of Forces) were stationed in Poland from 1945 until 1993. It was only in 1956 that official agreements between communist regime in Poland established by Soviets themselves and Soviet Union recognized the presence of those troops; hence some Polish scholars accept the usage of term 'occupation' for period 1945–1956.[14] The Polish government-in-exile existed until 1990.
Baltic states (1940–1991)
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania had been independent nations since 1918, when all three countries were occupied by the Red Army in June 1940 and formally annexed into the USSR in August 1940.[15] Given a free hand by Nazi Germany via the German–Soviet Nonaggression Pact and its secret additional protocol of August 1939,[16] the Soviet Union pressured the three countries to accept its military bases in September 1939. In the case of refusal, the USSR effected an air and naval blockade and threatened to attack immediately with hundreds of thousands of troops massed upon the border. The Soviet military forces overtook the political systems of these countries in June 1940 and installed puppet regimes after rigged elections in July 1940.[17]
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The sovietisation was interrupted by the
During the occupation, the Soviet authorities killed, politically arrested, unlawfully drafted, and deported hundreds of thousands of people. Numerous other kind of crimes against humanity were committed all through the occupation period.[17] Furthermore, trying to enforce the ideals of Communism, the authorities deliberately dismantled the existing social and economic structures, and imposed new "ideologically pure" hierarchies. This severely retarded the Baltic economies. For example, Estonian scientists have estimated economic damages directly attributable to the post-World War II occupation to hundreds of billions of US dollars (several dozens worth of Estonia's 2006 GDP of $21.28 billion[18]).
After all, the attempt to integrate the Estonian society into the Soviet system failed. Although the armed resistance was defeated, the population remained anti-Soviet. This helped the Estonians to organise a
Notwithstanding the annexation by the Soviet Union in 1940, it is therefore correct to speak of the occupation of the Baltic states, referring in particular to the absence of Soviet legal title. The prolonged occupation was an unorthodox one. Until 1991, the status of the three countries resembled the classical occupation in important ways: external control by an internationally unsanctioned force and a conflict of interest between the foreign power and the inhabitants. However, in other aspects the situation was very different from a classical occupation. Both the fact of the incorporation of the Baltic states to the USSR as
Although the Soviet Union condemned the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
Finnish territories (1940)
After the Baltic states agreed to Soviet demands in September and October 1939, the Soviets turned their attention to Finland. The Soviet Union demanded territories on the
The Winter War ended on 13 March 1940 with the signing of the
When the hostilities resumed in
Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina (1940)
The Soviet Union, which did not recognize the sovereignty of Romania over Bessarabia since the union of 1918, issued an ultimatum on 28 June 1940 demanding the evacuation of the Romanian military and administration from the territory it contested as well as from the northern part of the Romanian province of Bukovina.[30] Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and armed forces retreated to avoid war. Adolf Hitler used Soviet occupation of Bessarabia as justification for German occupation of Yugoslavia and Greece and German attack on USSR.
After the Soviet Union entered the war on the Allied side
On 22 June 1941, the
Iran (1941–1946)
On 25 August 1941 British and Commonwealth forces and the Soviet Union jointly invaded Iran. The purpose of the invasion (codenamed Operation Countenance) was to secure Iranian oil fields and ensure supply lines (see Persian Corridor) for the Soviets fighting against European Axis countries on the Eastern Front. The Soviet Union would go on to set up the Azerbaijan People's Government in Iranian Azerbaijan while just occupying the rest of north Iran.
Hungary (1944–1991)
Soviet occupation of Hungary | |||||||||
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Soviet military occupation | |||||||||
1944–1947 | |||||||||
Capital | Budapest | ||||||||
Government | |||||||||
• Type | Military administration | ||||||||
Soviet military commander | |||||||||
• 1944–1945 | Semyon Timoshenko | ||||||||
• 1945–1947 | Kliment Voroshilov | ||||||||
Historical era | Paris Peace Treaties | 15 September 1947 | |||||||
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In July 1941, the
The Soviets made sure that a loyal post-war government dominated by Communists was installed in the country before transferring authority from the occupational force to the Hungarian authorities. The presence of Soviet troops in the country was regulated by the 1949 mutual assistance treaty concluded between the Soviet and Hungarian governments. The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a spontaneous nationwide revolt against the Communist government of Hungary and its Soviet-imposed policies. After announcing a willingness to negotiate the withdrawal of Soviet forces, the Soviet Politburo changed its mind. On 4 November 1956, a large joint military force of the Warsaw Pact led by Moscow, entered Budapest to crush the armed resistance, killing thousands of civilians in the process.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the last Soviet soldier left the country in 1991, thus ending Soviet military presence in Hungary.
Romania (1944–1958)
The Soviet's second
The terms of the Armistice Agreement ceased on 15 September 1947 as the conditions of the Paris Peace Treaties, 1947 entered into force. The new treaty stipulated the withdrawal of all Allied forces from Romania with an important exemption that such withdrawal was "subject to the right of the Soviet Union to keep on Romanian territory such armed forces as it may need for the maintenance of the lines of communication of the Soviet Army with the Soviet zone of occupation in Austria."
In the aftermath of the agreement the Soviet presence fell from 130,000 troops (the peak in 1947) to approximately 30,000. The troops were fully withdrawn by August 1958.
Comparing the Soviet occupation of Romania to that of Bulgaria, David Stone notes: "Unlike Bulgaria, Romania had few cultural and historical ties with Russia, and had actually waged war on the Soviet Union. As a result, Soviet occupation weighted heavier on the Romanian people, and the troops themselves were less disciplined."[37]
Bulgaria (1944–1947)
On 5 September 1944, the Soviet Union declared war on Bulgaria and on 8 September invaded the country, without encountering resistance. By the next day Soviets occupied the northeastern part of Bulgaria along with the key port city of Varna. On 8 September 1944 Bulgaria declared war against Nazi Germany. Garrison detachments with Zveno officers at the head overthrew the government on the eve of 9 September, after taking strategic keypoints in Sofia and arresting the ministers. A new government of the Fatherland Front was appointed on 9 September with Kimon Georgiev as prime minister. Soviet troops were withdrawn in 1947.[38]
Czechoslovakia (1944–1945)
Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia | |||||||||
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Soviet military occupation | |||||||||
1944–1945 | |||||||||
Capital | Prague | ||||||||
• Type | Military administration | ||||||||
Historical era | Second World War | ||||||||
• Established | 16 May 1944 | ||||||||
• Disestablished | 1 December 1945 | ||||||||
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In the fall of 1944 when the north and eastern parts of Carpathian Ruthenia were captured by the
Following the capture of Prague by the Red Army in May 1945 the Soviets withdrew in December 1945 as part of an agreement that all Soviet and US troops leave the country.
Northern Norway (1944–1946) and Bornholm, Denmark (1945–1946)
In 1944–1946, Soviet troops occupied northern Norway and the Danish island of Bornholm, strategically situated at the Baltic sea entrance. Stalin's intent was to attempt to gain bases at these locations late in the war.[39] The Soviet deputy ambassador suggested seizing Bornholm in March 1945 and on 4 May the Baltic Fleet was ordered to seize the island.[39]
Bornholm was heavily bombarded by
Eastern Germany (1945–1949)
Soviet occupation zone of Germany was the area of eastern Germany occupied by the Soviet Union from 1945 on. In 1949 it became The German Democratic Republic known in English as East Germany.
In 1955 the Republic was declared by the Soviet Union to be fully sovereign; however, Soviet troops remained, based on the four-power Potsdam agreement. As NATO troops remained in West Berlin and West Germany, the GDR and Berlin in particular became focal points of Cold War tensions.
A
The
One result of the occupation was children fathered by Russian soldiers either through romantic relationships, relationships of convenience or rape. These children experienced societal discrimination for decades, but after the troops' withdrawal and the development of perestroika, some of these "Lost Red Army Children" made public attempts to discover more about their Russian fathers.[42]
Austria (1945–1955)
The Soviet occupation of Austria lasted from 1945 to 1955.[43] At the end of the war, Austria and Vienna were divided into 4 zones of occupation, following the terms of the Potsdam Conference. The Soviet Union expropriated over 450 businesses, formerly German-owned, and established Administration for Soviet Property in Austria, or USIA. This accounted for less than 10% of the Austrian workforce at the peak in 1951, and less than 5% of the Austrian GDP at that time.
On 15 May 1955, the Austrian State Treaty was signed, officially establishing Austrian independence and sovereignty. The treaty was enacted on 27 July, and the last Allied troops left the country on 25 October.
Manchuria (1945–1946)
The
Korea (1945–1948)
In August 1945, the Soviet Army established the
Kuril Islands (1945)
After Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration on 14 August 1945, and announced the termination of the war on 15 August 1945, the Soviet Union started the Invasion of the Kuril Islands, which took place between 18 August and 3 September, expelling the Japanese inhabitants two years later.[49]
Cold War
Hungarian Revolution of 1956
Soviet occupation of Hungary | |||||||||
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Soviet military occupation | |||||||||
1956–1957 | |||||||||
Puppet government | |||||||||
Soviet military commander | |||||||||
• 1956–1957 | Ivan Konev | ||||||||
Prime Minister | |||||||||
• 1956–1957 | János Kádár | ||||||||
Historical era | Hungarian Revolution of 1956Cold War | ||||||||
4 November 1956 | |||||||||
27 May 1957 | |||||||||
• Last Soviet troops leave | 19 June 1991 | ||||||||
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The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a spontaneous nationwide revolt against the Communist government of Hungary and its Soviet-imposed policies. After announcing their willingness to negotiate the withdrawal of Soviet forces, the Soviet Politburo changed its mind and moved to crush the revolution. On 4 November 1956, a large joint military force of the Warsaw Pact, led by Moscow, entered Budapest to crush the armed resistance.
The Soviet intervention, codenamed "Operation Whirlwind", was launched by Marshal Ivan Konev.[50] The five Soviet divisions stationed in Hungary before 23 October were augmented to a total strength of 17 divisions.[51] The 8th Mechanized Army under command of Lieutenant General Hamazasp Babadzhanian and the 38th Army under command of Lieutenant General Hadzhi-Umar Mamsurov from the nearby Carpathian Military District were deployed to Hungary for the operation.
At 3:00 a.m. on 4 November, Soviet tanks penetrated Budapest along the
Czechoslovakia (1968–1989)
In 1948, the Czech Communist Party won a large portion of the vote in Czechoslovak politics, leading to a communist period without immediate Soviet military presence. The 1950s were characterized as a repressive period in the country's history, but by the 1960s, the local socialist leadership had taken a course toward economic, social and political reforms. However, a number of significant Czech communists, together with the Czech security agency, conspired against limited introduction of market systems, personal freedoms, and renewal of civic associations (see Socialism with a human face) by leveraging Russian support towards strengthening Communist Party's positions.[54]
Leonid Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, reacted to these reforms by announcing the Brezhnev Doctrine, and on 21 August 1968, about 750,000 Warsaw Pact troops, mostly from the Soviet Union, Poland, Bulgaria and Hungary, with tanks and machine guns occupied Czechoslovakia, deported thousands of people and rapidly derailed all reforms. Most large cities were individually invaded and overtaken; however, the invasion's primary attention focused on Prague, particularly the state organs, Czech television and radio.
The Czechoslovak government held an emergency session, and loudly expressed its disagreement with the occupation. Many citizens joined in protests, and by September 1968 at least 72 people had died and hundreds more injured in the conflicts. In the brief time after the occupation, which had put an end to any hope that Prague Spring had created, about 100,000 people fled Czechoslovakia. Over the whole time of the occupation, more than 700,000 people, including significant part of Czechoslovak intelligentsia left. Communists responded by revoking Czechoslovakian citizenship of many of these refugees and banned them from returning to their homeland.
At a meeting of the United Nations Security Council, Yakov Malik, Soviet ambassador to the United Nations issued a proclamation, claiming that the military intervention was a response to a request by the government of Czechoslovakia. The Soviet Union being a permanent member of the Security Council—with the right to veto—was able to circumvent any United Nations' resolutions to end the occupation.
Prague Spring's end became clear by December 1968, when a new presidium of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia accepted the so-called Instructions from The Critical Development in the Country and Society after the XIII Congress of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. Under a guise of "normalisation", all aspects of neo-Stalinism were returned to everyday political and economic life.
In 1987, the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev acknowledged that his liberalizing policies of glasnost and perestroika owed a great deal to Dubček's socialism with a human face. When asked what the difference was between the Prague Spring and his own reforms, Gorbachev replied, "Nineteen years".
Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia ended in 1989 by the Velvet Revolution, 2 years before the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The last occupation troops left the country on 27 June 1991[55]
During a visit to Prague in 2007, Vladimir Putin said that he felt the moral responsibility for the 1968 events and that Russia condemned them.[56]
Afghanistan (1979–1989)
Scholarly and historical accounts maintain that
The peak of the fighting came in 1985–86. The Soviet forces launched their largest and most effective assaults on the
See also
- Military history of the Soviet Union, for other Soviet interventions
- Soviet Empire
- Western betrayal
- Captive Nations
- Russian-occupied territories
Notes
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 43
- ^ a b c Wettig 2008, p. 21
- ^ ISBN 978-90-420-2225-6
- ISBN 0-7190-4201-1
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 55
- ^ Shirer 1990, p. 794
- ISBN 0-415-32718-0
- ISBN 0-87891-863-9
- ISBN 0-415-07153-4
- ISBN 0-521-44317-2., p. 963.
- ^ Concise Statistical Year-Book of Poland, Polish Ministry of Information. London June 1941 P.9 & 10
- ^ U.S. Bureau of the Census The Population of Poland Ed. W. Parker Mauldin, Washington- 1954 P.140
- ^ (in Polish) "Przesiedlenie ludności polskiej z Kresów Wschodnich do Polski 1944–1947. Wybór dokumentów", Wybór, opracowanie i redakcja dokumentów: Stanisław Ciesielski; Wstęp: Włodzimierz Borodziej, Stanisław Ciesielski, Jerzy Kochanowski Dokumenty zebrali: Włodzimierz Borodziej, Ingo Eser, Stanisław Jankowiak, Jerzy Kochanowski, Claudia Kraft, Witold Stankowski, Katrin Steffen; Wydawnictwo NERITON, Warszawa 2000
- Polskie Towarzystwo Historyczne. Last accessed on 30 May 2007.
- ISBN 91-22-02049-7
- ^ "Latvia – history – geography". Retrieved 16 May 2017.
- ^ Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity, pp. VII–XXVI. Tallinn, 2009
- ^ "CIA-The World Factbook-Estonia". Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 16 May 2017.
- ^ Lauri Mälksoo (2001). Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: The Case of the Incorporation of the Baltic States by the USSR. Leiden/Boston: Martinus Nijhoff. pp. 193–195.
- ^ (in Russian) Ведомости Съезда народных депутатов СССР и Верховного Совета СССР. 1989. № 29. Ст. 579. – text of the declaration.
- ^ Jerzy W. Borejsza, Klaus Ziemer, Magdalena Hułas. Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes in Europe. Berghahn Books, 2006. Page 521.
- ^ Russia denies Baltic 'occupation', BBC News, Thursday, 5 May 2005
- ^ "Soviet Demands October 1939" (PDF). histdoc.net. Retrieved 2 December 2021.
- ^ Manninen (2008), pp. 37, 42, 43, 46, 49
- ^ Rentola (2003) pp. 188–217
- ^ Ravasz (2003) p. 3
- ^ Clemmesen and Faulkner (2013) p. 76
- ^ Zeiler and DuBois (2012) p. 210
- ^ Reiter (2009), p. 124
- ^ Theodora Stănescu-Stanciu; Georgiana Margareta Scurtu (2002). "Istoria Românilor între anii 1918–1940 Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu" (in Romanian). University of Bucharest. Archived from the original on 13 November 2007.
- ISBN 1-58544-298-4
- ^ Grenville 2005, pp. 370–71
- ^ Cook 2001, p. 17
- ^ Wettig 2008, pp. 96–100
- ISBN 0-8223-1171-2
- ^ "The Armistice Agreement with Rumania". Archived from the original on 20 August 2016. Retrieved 16 May 2017.
- ^ David Stone, "The 1945 Ethridge Mission to Bulgaria and Romania and the Origins of the Cold War in the Balkans", Diplomacy & Statecraft, Volume 17, no. 1, March 2006, pp. 93–112.
- ^ "Bulgaria – The Soviet Occupation". www.country-data.com. Retrieved 16 May 2017.
- ^ ISBN 9781591142874.
- ^ "Bornholm during WW2". Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 6 September 2007.
- ^ "The Once and Future Berlin". Hoover Institution – Policy Review. Archived from the original on 18 July 2008. Retrieved 10 September 2007.
- ^ Repke, Irina; Wensierski, Peter (16 August 2007). "The Occupation and its offspring: Lost Red Army Children Search for Fathers". Der Spiegel.
- ^ "The Soviet occupation of Austria, 1945–1955 – Siegfried Beer Recent research and perspectives". Eurozine. 23 May 2007. Archived from the original on 8 December 2016. Retrieved 10 September 2007.
- Battlefield (documentary series), 2001, 98 minutes.
- ISBN 978-0-8047-0460-1.
- ISBN 978-0-14-100146-3.
- ISBN 978-0-8262-1732-5.
- ISBN 0-674-01693-9.
- Japan Times, 22 September 2007. Accessed 3 August 2008
- ^ MiB)
- ISBN 978-963-9116-36-8.
- ^ Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises in Hungary and Poland: Reassessments and New Findings", Journal of Contemporary History, Vol.33, No.2, April 1998, p.210.
- ^ Péter Gosztonyi, "Az 1956-os forradalom számokban", Népszabadság (Budapest), 3 November 1990.
- ^ "The Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia". Archived from the original on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2017.
- ^ Rousek, Leos (28 June 2011). "20 Years After Soviet Soldiers Left the Czech Republic, Russians Move In". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 16 May 2017.
- ^ Gazeta, Путин чувствует моральную ответственность России за события 1968 года в Чехословакии (Putin feels moral responsibility for the 1968 events in Czechoslovakia), 27 April 2007
- ISBN 0-413-55780-4
References
- Cook, Bernard A. (2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8153-4057-7.
- Grenville, John Ashley Soames (2005). A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Century. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-28954-2.
- Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11204-7.
- Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5542-6.
- Meißner, Christoph, Morré, Jörg (Eds.) (2021). The Withdrawal of Soviet Troops from East Central Europe. National Perspectives in Comparison. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3-525-31127-1.)
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
Further reading
- Czech government: The Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia
- Mart Laar 29 April 2007: Why Russia likes Soviet occupation monuments?
- Stanislav Kulchytsky 17 July 2007: Was Ukraine under Soviet occupation?
- Encyclopædia Britannica: Latvia. The Soviet occupation and incorporation
- Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation, a part of Romania: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1989, edited by Ronald D. Bachman