Allied-occupied Austria
Republic of Austria Republik Österreich ( Austrian German ) | |||||||||||||
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1945–1955 | |||||||||||||
Status | Military occupation | ||||||||||||
Capital | Vienna | ||||||||||||
Common languages | Austrian German[a] Austro-Bavarian Alemannic | ||||||||||||
Religion | Christianity (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Protestant) | ||||||||||||
Demonym(s) | Allied Austrian | ||||||||||||
Government | Dependent federal parliamentary republic | ||||||||||||
Governors | |||||||||||||
• British zone | Richard McCreery | ||||||||||||
• American zone | Mark W. Clark | ||||||||||||
• French zone | Antoine Béthouart | ||||||||||||
• Soviet zone | Ivan Konev | ||||||||||||
• Soviet Military Occupation | Fyodor Tolbukhin | ||||||||||||
President | |||||||||||||
• 1945–1950 | Karl Renner | ||||||||||||
• 1951–1955 | Theodor Körner | ||||||||||||
Chancellor | |||||||||||||
• 1945 | Karl Renner | ||||||||||||
• 1945–1953 | Leopold Figl | ||||||||||||
• 1953–1955 | Julius Raab | ||||||||||||
Historical era | Aftermath of World War II / Cold War | ||||||||||||
13 April 1945 | |||||||||||||
• Established | 27 April 1945 | ||||||||||||
• End of World War II | 8 May 1945 | ||||||||||||
27 July 1955 | |||||||||||||
• Last Allies left | 25 October 1955 | ||||||||||||
Population | |||||||||||||
• 1945 | 6,793,000 | ||||||||||||
• 1955 | 6,947,000 | ||||||||||||
Currency | Austrian schilling | ||||||||||||
ISO 3166 code | AT | ||||||||||||
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Today part of | Austria
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History of Austria |
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Austria portal |
Austria was occupied by the Allies and proclaimed independence from Nazi Germany on 27 April 1945 (confirmed by the Berlin Declaration for Germany on 5 June 1945), as a result of the Vienna offensive and ended with the Austrian State Treaty on 27 July 1955.
After the
In the immediate
Whereas Germany was divided into East and West Germany in 1949, Austria remained under joint occupation of the Western Allies and the Soviet Union until 1955; its status became a controversial subject in the Cold War until the warming of relations known as the Khrushchev Thaw. After Austrian promises of perpetual neutrality, Austria was accorded full independence on 15 May 1955 and the last occupation troops left on 25 October that year.
Background
At the 1943 Moscow Conference, the Soviet Union, United States, and the United Kingdom had jointly decided that the German annexation of Austria would be considered "null and void". As well, all administrative and legal measures since 1938 would be ignored. The conference declared the intent to create a free and independent Austria after the war, but also stated that Austria had a responsibility for "participation in the war at the side of Hitlerite Germany" which could not be evaded.[1]
1945–1946: first year of occupation
Soviet rule and reestablishing Austrian government
On 29 March 1945, Soviet commander
On 20 April 1945, the Soviets, without asking their Western allies,[4] instructed Renner to form a provisional government. Seven days later Renner's cabinet took office, declared the independence of Austria from Nazi Germany and called for the creation of a democratic state along the lines of the First Austrian Republic.[4] Soviet acceptance of Renner was not an isolated episode; their officers re-established district administrations and appointed local mayors, frequently following the advice of the locals, even before the battle was over.[5]
Renner and his ministers were guarded and watched by
As soon as Hitler's armies were pushed back into Germany, the
Soviet commanders on the ground ordered the troops to stop the crime as soon as they entered
French, British, and American troops
American troops, including the 11th Armored Division, crossed the Austrian border on 26 April, followed by French and British troops on 29 April and on 8 May, respectively.[20][2] Until the end of July 1945 none of the Western allies had first-hand intelligence from Eastern Austria (likewise, Renner's cabinet knew practically nothing about conditions in the West).[21]
The first Americans arrived in Vienna in the end of July 1945,
Occupation zones
On 9 July 1945 the Allies agreed on the borders of their occupation zones.[25] Movement of occupation troops ("zone swap") continued until the end of July.[21] The French and American zones bordered those countries' zones in Germany, and the Soviet zone bordered future Warsaw Pact states:
- Vorarlberg and North Tyrol were assigned to the French Zone
- Salzburg and Upper Austriasouth of the Danube were assigned to the American Zone.
- Carinthia, and Styriawere assigned to the British Zone.
- Burgenland, Lower Austria, and the Mühlviertel area of Upper Austria, north of the Danube, were assigned to the Soviet Zone.
- Vienna was divided among all four Allies. The historical center of Vienna was declared an international zone, in which occupation forces changed every month.
In determining the occupation zones, the administrative changes made after the Anschluss were applied in the western zones (Steirisches Salzkammergut to Upper Austria and East Tyrol to Carinthia) and were disregarded in the Soviet zone (Vienna not enlarged and Burgenland re-established).
First general elections after the war
The
On 28 June 1946, the Allies signed the Second Control Agreement which loosened their dominance over the Austrian government. The
Mounting losses
In late 1945 and early 1946 the Allied occupation force peaked at around 150,000 Soviet, 55,000 British, 40,000 American, and 15,000 French troops.[34] The costs of keeping these troops were levied on the Austrian government. At first, Austria had to pay the whole occupation bill; in 1946 occupation costs were capped at 35% of Austrian state expenditures, equally split between the Soviets and the Western allies.[34]
Coincidentally with the Second Control Agreement, the Soviets changed their economic policy from outright plunder to running expropriated Austrian businesses for a profit. Austrian communists advised Stalin to nationalize the whole economy, but he deemed the proposal to be too radical.
Hunger
In 1947, the Austrian economy, including USIA enterprises, reached 61% of pre-war levels, but it was disproportionately weak in consumer goods production (42% of pre-war levels).[44] Food remained the worst problem. The country, according to American reports, survived 1945 and 1946 on "a near-starvation diet" with daily rations remaining below 2000 calories until the end of 1947.[45] 65% of Austrian agricultural output and nearly all oil was concentrated in the Soviet zone, complicating the Western Allies' task of feeding the population in their own zones.[46]
From March 1946 to June 1947, 64% of these rations were provided by the
The severe winter of 1946–1947 was followed by the disastrous summer of 1947, when the
In June 1947, the month when the UNRRA stopped shipments of food to Austria, the extent of the food crisis compelled the U.S. government to issue $300 million in food aid. In the same month Austria was invited to discuss its participation in the Marshall Plan.[54] Direct aid and subsidies helped Austria to survive the hunger of 1947 while simultaneously depressing food prices and discouraging local farmers, thereby delaying the rebirth of Austrian agriculture.[47]
Marshall Plan
Austria finalised its Marshall Plan program in the end of 1947 and received the first tranche of Marshall Plan aid in March 1948.[55] Heavy industry (or what was left of it) was concentrated around Linz, in the American zone, and in British-occupied Styria. Their products were in high demand in post-war Europe. Naturally, the administrators of the Marshall Plan channeled available financial aid into heavy industry controlled by the American and British forces.[56] American military and political leaders made no secret of their intentions: Geoffrey Keyes said that "we cannot afford to let this key area (Austria) fall under the exclusive influence of the Soviet Union."[57] The Marshall Plan was deployed primarily against the Soviet zone but it was not completely excluded: it received 8% of Marshall plan investments (compared to 25% of food and other physical commodities).[58] The Austrian government regarded financial aid to the Soviet zone as a lifeline holding the country together. This was the only case where Marshall Plan funds were distributed in Soviet-occupied territory.[59]
The Marshall Plan was not universally popular, especially in its initial phase. but Austria remained dependent on food imports.
The second stage of the Marshall Plan, which began in 1950, concentrated on productivity of the economy.[65] According to Michael J. Hogan, "in the most profound sense, it involved the transfer of attitudes, habits and values as well, indeed a whole way of life that Marshall planners associated with progress in the marketplace of politics and social relationships as much as they did with industry and agriculture."[66] The program, as intended by American lawmakers,[67] targeted improvement in factory-level productivity, labor-management relations, free trade unions and introduction of modern business practices.[68] The Economic Cooperation Administration, which operated until December 1951, distributed around $300 million in technical assistance and attempted steering the Austrian social partnership (political parties, labor unions, business associations, and government) in favor of productivity and growth instead of redistribution and consumption.[69]
Their efforts were thwarted by the Austrian practice of making decisions behind closed doors.[70] The Americans struggled to change it in favor of open, public discussion. They took a strong anti-cartel stance, appreciated by the Socialists, and pressed the government to remove anti-competition legislation.[71] But ultimately they were responsible for the creation of the vast monopolistic public sector of the economy (and thus politically benefiting the Socialists).[72]
According to Bischof, "no European nation benefited more from the Marshall Plan than Austria."[73] Austria received nearly $1 billion through the Marshall Plan, and half a billion in humanitarian aid.[34][74] The Americans also refunded all occupation costs charged in 1945–1946, around $300 million.[75] In 1948–1949, Marshall Plan aid contributed 14% of national income, the highest ratio of all involved countries.[76] Per capita, aid amounted to $132 compared to $19 for the Germans.[34] But Austria also paid more war reparations per capita than any other Axis state or territory.[77] Total war reparations taken by the Soviet Union including withdrawn USIA profits, looted property and the final settlement agreed in 1955, are estimated between $1.54 billion and $2.65 billion[77] (Eisterer: 2 to 2.5 billion).[78]
Cold War
The British had been quietly arming gendarmes, the so-called B-Gendarmerie, since 1945 and discussed the creation of a proper Austrian military in 1947.[79] The Americans feared that Vienna could be the scene of another Berlin Blockade. They set up and filled emergency food dumps, and prepared to airlift supplies to Vienna[80] while the government created a backup base in Salzburg.[81] The American command secretly trained the soldiers of an underground Austrian military at a rate of 200 men a week.[82] The B-Gendarmerie knowingly hired Wehrmacht veterans and VdU members;[83] the denazification of Austria's 537,000 registered Nazis had largely ended in 1948.[84]
Austrian communists appealed to Stalin to partition their country along the German model, but in February 1948
Although in the fall of 1950 the Western powers replaced their military representatives with civilian diplomats,
Détente
The death of Joseph Stalin and the Korean Armistice Agreement defused the standoff, and the country was rapidly, but not completely, demilitarized. After the Soviet Union had relieved Austria of the need to pay for the cost of their reduced army of 40,000 men,[75] the British and French followed suit and reduced their forces to a token presence.[92] Finally, the Soviets replaced their military governor with a civilian ambassador. The former border between Eastern and Western Austria became a demarcation line.[75]
Chancellor Julius Raab, elected in April 1953, removed pro-Western foreign minister Gruber and steered Austria to a more neutral policy.[93] Raab carefully probed the Soviets about resuming the talks on independence,[94] but until February 1955 it remained contingent on a solution to the larger German problem. The Western strategy of rearming West Germany, formulated in the Paris Agreement, was unacceptable to the Soviets. They responded with a counter-proposal for a pan-European security system that, they said, could speed up reunification of Germany, and again the West suspected foul play.[95] Eisenhower, in particular, had "an utter lack of confidence in the reliability and integrity of the men in the Kremlin... the Kremlin is pre-empting the right to speak for the small nations of the world".[96]
In January 1955, Soviet diplomats
Independence
In March 1955, Molotov clarified his plan through a series of consultations with ambassador
These fears did not materialize, and Raab's visit to Moscow (12–15 April) was a breakthrough. Moscow agreed that Austria would be free no later than 31 December.[104][105] Austrians agreed to pay for the "German assets" and oil fields left by the Soviets, mostly in kind;[106][107] "the real prize was to be neutrality on the Swiss model."[104][108] Molotov also promised the release and repatriation of Austrians imprisoned in the Soviet Union.[97][page needed]
Western powers were stunned. British diplomat and signatory to the treaty,
High commissioners
American zone:
- Mark W. Clark 5 July 1945 - 16 May 1947
- Geoffrey Keyes 17 May 1947 - 19 September 1950
- Walter J. Donnelly 20 September 1950 - 17 July 1952
- Llewellyn Thompson 17 July 1952 - 27 July 1955
British zone:
- Sir Richard McCreery July 1945 - March 1946
- Sir James Steele March 1946 - October 1947
- Sir Alexander Galloway October 1947 - 1 January 1950
- Sir John Winterton 1 January 1950 - 1 August 1950
- Harold Caccia 1 August 1950 - 5 February 1954
- Sir Geoffrey Wallinger 5 February 1954 - 27 July 1955
French zone:
- Antoine Béthouart 8 July 1945 - September 1950
- Jean Payart September 1950 - October 1954
- Jean Chauvel October 1954 - February 1955
- Roger Lalouette February 1955 - June 1955
- François Seydoux de Clausonne 3 June 1955 - 27 July 1955
Soviet zone:
Military Commander
- Fyodor Tolbukhin 13 April 1945 - July 1945
High Commissioners
- Ivan Konev July 1945 - 25 April 1946
- Vladimir Kurasov 10 May 1946 - 2 April 1949
- Vladimir Petrovich Sviridov4 May 1949 - 7 June 1953
- Ivan Ilyichev 7 June 1953 - 27 July 1955
See also
- Aftermath of World War II
- Allied-occupied Germany
- American food policy in occupied Germany
- Soviet occupations
- The Third Man
Footnotes
- ^ It has been standardized in Austria by the Österreichisches Wörterbuch, a dictionary published by the Ministry of Education, Science and Research, since 1951.
- ^ Soviet Interior Ministry
References
- ^ Conference delegates 1944, pp. 3–8.
- ^ a b Eisterer 2009, p. 190.
- ^ a b c Bordjugov 2005.
- ^ a b c d e Bischof 2009, p. 174.
- ^ Eisterer 2009, p. 196.
- ^ Petrov 2009, p. 259.
- ^ a b c Bischof 2009, p. 175.
- ^ Petrov 2009, p. 260.
- ^ Petrov 2009, p. 263.
- ^ Petrov 2009, pp. 252–253.
- ^ Petrov 2009, p. 255, provides a roll of NKVD troops stationed in Austria.
- ^ "The Soviet Occupation of Austria". The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. Retrieved 9 October 2022.
- ^ Petrov 2009, p. 258.
- ^ Eisterer, p. 194.
- ^ Petrov 2009, pp. 266–268.
- ^ Lewis, pp. 145, 153, wrote that Tolbukhin "was reported to have been relieved of his command in the summer of 1945 because of the behaviour of his troops."
- ^ Berg 2000, p. 162.
- ^ Berg 2000, pp. 161–162, reviews the studies and sources on alcoholism in Soviet troops.
- ^ Carafano 2002, p. 177.
- ^ History 11th Armored Division http://11tharmoreddivision.com/
- ^ a b Eisterer 2009, p. 197.
- ^ a b c d Bischof 2009, p. 177.
- ^ Antoine Béthouart (France), Richard McCreery (UK), Mark W. Clark (US), and Ivan Konev (USSR) – Eisterer 2009, p. 197.
- ^ a b c Bischof 2009, p. 176.
- ^ Agreement on the occupation zones in Austria and the administration of the City of Vienna (9 July 1945)[1] & [2]
- ^ The coalition of ÖVP and SPÖ has been since known as the Grand Coalition – Wilsford, p. 378 or, alternatively, the Great Coalition – Wollinetz, p. 93.
- ^ a b Wollinetz 1988, p. 94.
- ^ Bischof 2009, pp. 176–177.
- ^ Bischof 2009, pp. 177–178.
- ^ a b c Bischof 2009, p. 172.
- ^ Bischof 2009, p. 173.
- ^ Lewis 2000, p. 139.
- ^ a b Bischof 2009, p. 178.
- ^ a b c d Eisterer 2009, p. 201.
- ^ Fraberger, Stiefel 2000, p. 75
- ^ Fraberger, Stiefel 2000, p. 76.
- ^ Fraberger, Stiefel 2000, pp. 76–77.
- ^ Fraberger, Stiefel 2000, p. 80; Komlosy 2000, p. 124.
- ^ Lewis 2000, p. 146.
- ^ Fraberger, Stiefel 2000, p. 77.
- ^ Steininger 2003, pp. 79–80.
- ^ Steininger 2003, pp. 81–82.
- ^ Steininger 2003, p. 83.
- ^ Lewis 2000, pp. 141–142, used 1937 as a base year, and wrote that "1937 itself was a poor year".
- ^ Lewis 2000, p. 142.
- ^ Bailey, p. 148, wrote "65% of pre-war yield", not actual post-war output.
- ^ a b c d Lewis 2000, p. 143.
- ^ Gimbel 1976, p. 163.
- ^ Lewis 2000, p. 149.
- ^ For a review of evolution of Austrian Social Partnership see Bischof et al. 1996.
- ^ Lewis 2000, p. 147.
- ^ a b c Lewis 2000, p. 148.
- ^ Berg 2000, p. 165.
- ^ Lewis 2000, p. 145.
- ^ Lewis 2000, p. 144.
- ^ Bader, p. 160.
- ^ Steininger 2008, p. 77.
- ^ Fraberger, Stiefel 2000, p. 82.
- ^ Fraberger, Stiefel 2000, p. 83.
- ^ Lewis 2000, p. 138.
- ^ Bader, p. 160, uses 1937 as the base year (100%).
- ^ Bader, pp. 160–161.
- ^ Williams, p. 122.
- ^ Bader, p. 157.
- ^ Tweraser 1995, p. 93.
- ^ As cited in Tweraser 1995, p. 93. See Hogan, p. 415 for the original text.
- ^ Tweraser 1995, p. 96: the 1951 Benton Amendment to the Mutual Security Act required "to encourage free enterprise and trade unions and to discourage restricting trade practices."
- ^ Tweraser 1995, p. 94.
- ^ Tweraser 1995, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Tweraser 1995, p. 106.
- ^ Tweraser 1995, p. 98.
- ^ Tweraser 1995, p. 105.
- ^ Bischof 2009, p. 179.
- ^ Lewis, p. 144: "962 million dollars in Marshall Aid".
- ^ a b c Eisterer 2009, p. 202.
- ^ Berg, p. 169. The Netherlands and Ireland were the second and third with 10.8% and 7.8%.
- ^ a b Fraberger, Stiefel 2000, p. 85.
- ^ Eisterer 2009, p. 201: 2 to 2.5 billion U. S. dollars.
- ^ Carafano 2002, pp. 177–178.
- ^ Bischof 2009, pp. 181–182.
- ^ a b c d Bischof 2009, p. 181.
- ^ Carafano 2002, p. 180.
- ^ a b Carafano 2002, pp. 185–186, 187.
- ^ Eisterer 2009, p. 210.
- ^ Bischof 2009, p. 180.
- ^ Carafano 2002, p. 183.
- ^ Steininger 2008, p. 96.
- ^ Bader, p. 165; Williams, p. 115; Carafano 2002, pp. 196–197.
- ^ For a detailed account of the 1950 strikes see Bader, pp. 155–180.
- ^ Williams, p. 126.
- ^ Carafano 2002, p. 184.
- ^ Eisterer 2009, p. 202: UK – single battalion, France – 400 men in Vienna and "a few officers and gendarmes" in Tyrol. Carafano 2002, p. 188 – "reduced to skeletal commands."
- ^ Carafano 2002, p. 173.
- ^ Eisterer 2009, pp. 202–203.
- ^ Steininger 2008, pp. 110–111.
- ^ Steininger 2008, p. 101, cites Eisenhower's letter to Winston Churchill dated 22 July 1954. Full text in Boyle, p. 163
- ^ a b c d Sergeev 2001.
- ^ Steininger 2008, pp. 112–113.
- ^ Steininger 2008, pp. 117–119.
- ^ Steininger 2008, p. 123, refers to chancellor Schuschnigg's visit to Berchtesgaden on the eve of the Anschluss, 12 February 1938.
- ^ Steininger 2008, p. 126.
- ^ Carafano 2002, p. 189.
- ^ Carafano 2002, pp. 193–194.
- ^ a b c Steininger 2008, p. 128.
- ^ Molotov at first demanded six months to withdraw the troops, while Raab pressed for three months. In the end they agreed on "three months from signing the Treaty, but no later than December 31" – Kindermann 1955, p. 110.
- ^ $150 million for German assets paid with goods, plus 10 million tons of oil and $2 million in cash – Steininger 2008, p. 128. The Kremlin proposed to spread oil shipments over six years through 1961, taking 50% of Austrian output, but at the request of Austria the schedule was extended to 10 years (to 1965) – Sergeev.
- ^ See Bailey, p. 163, for a contemporary Western assessment of the final settlement as "self-ransom" and "extortion".
- ^ According to Sergeev, who was present at the negotiations, Molotov's phrase about the Swiss model was a quote from a speech delivered by John Foster Dulles in Berlin on 13 February 1954.
- ^ a b Steininger 2008, p. 131.
- ^ Carafano 2002, pp. 190–191.
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- ISBN 0-8179-4201-7.
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- Bischof, Günter (2009). Allied Plans and Policies for the Occupation of Austria, 1938–1955, in: ISBN 1-4128-0854-5. pp. 162–189.
- Bischof, Günter et al. (1996). Austro-Corporatism: Past, Present, Future. ISBN 1-56000-833-4.
- Bordjygov, Gennadij et al. (2005, in German). Sowjetische Politik in Österreich 1945–1955: Einleitung zu den Dokumenten, in: Sowjetische Politik in Österreich 1945–1955. Dokumente aus russischen Archiven. Wien: The Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. ISBN 978-3-7001-3536-4. pp. 18–30 (Russian edition).
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- ISBN 1-58544-213-5.
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- Fraberger, Ingrid; Stiefel, Dieter (2000). Enemy Images: The Meaning of Anti-Communism and its Importance for the Political and Economic Reconstruction in Austria after 1945, in: Bischof, Günter et al. (2000). The Marshall Plan in Austria. ISBN 0-7658-0679-7. pp. 56–97.
- Kindermann, Walter (1955). The intimate Diary of an Austrian Interpreter at Moscow Treaty Talks.... Life (magazine), 11 July 1955 (v. 39 no. 2), pp. 108–112.
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- Komlosy, Andrea (2000). The Marshall Plan and the Making of the Iron Curtain in Austria. in: Bischof, Günter et al. (2000). The Marshall Plan in Austria. ISBN 0-7658-0679-7. pp. 98–137.
- Lewis, Jill (2000). Dancing on a Tight Rope: The Beginning of the Marshall Plan, in: Bischof, Günter et al. (2000). The Marshall Plan in Austria. ISBN 0-7658-0679-7. pp. 138–155.
- Petrov, Nikita (2009). The Internal Troops of the NKVD in the System of Soviet Organs of Repression in Austria. 1945–1946, in: Bischof, Günter et al. (2009). New perspectives on Austrians and World War II. ISBN 1-4128-0883-9. pp. 250–276.
- Sergeev, Rostislav (2001, in Russian). Kak byl dostignut proryv v avsriyskom voprose (Как был достигнут прорыв в австрийском вопросе). Sovremennaya Evropa 2001 no. 4.
- ISBN 1-84545-326-3.
- ISBN 0-7658-0800-5.
- Tweraser, Kurt K. (1995). The Politics of Productivity and Corporatism: The Late Marshall Plan in Austria, 1950–1954, in: Bischof, Günter et al. Austria in the Nineteen Fifties. ISBN 1-56000-763-X. pp. 91–115.
- Wenzl, Bernhard (2017). An American in Allied-occupied Austria: John Dos Passos Reports on "The Vienna Frontier", in: Parker, Joshua and Ralph J. Poole. Austria and America: 20th-Century Cross-Cultural Encounters, LIT Verlag, pp. 73–80
- Williams, Warren (2007). Flashpoint Austria: The Communist-Inspired Strikes of 1950 (paid access). Journal of Cold War Studies. Summer 2007, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 115–136. Published by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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Further reading
- ISBN 0-521-37840-0.
- Whithan, Donald Robert; Whithan, Florentine (1991). Salzburg under siege: U.S. occupation, 1945–1955. ISBN 0-313-28116-5.