Partition Sejm
The Partition Sejm (
The new legislation was guaranteed by the Russian Empire, giving it another excuse to interfere in the Commonwealth politics if the legislation it favored was changed. Russia was the party most determined to form the Permanent Council, which it saw as further means to control the Commonwealth.
The creation of the Commission of National Education, the Commonwealth's and Europe's first ministry of education, is seen as the proudest and most constructive achievement of the otherwise often-deplored Partition Sejm.
Background
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was reduced from the status of a major European power to that of a Russian protectorate (or vassal or satellite state). Russian tsars effectively chose Polish-Lithuanian monarchs utilizing the "free elections" and decided the outcome of much of Poland's internal politics. The Repnin Sejm, for example, was named after the Russian ambassador who unofficially presided over the proceedings.[1][2]
The Partition Sejm and the First Partition occurred after the
Prussia, friendly towards both Russia and Austria, suggested a series of territorial adjustments, in which Austria would be compensated by parts of
Although for a few decades (since the times of the
After Russia occupied the Danubian Principalities, Henry convinced Frederick and Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria that the balance of power would be maintained by a tripartite division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth instead of Russia taking land from the Ottomans. Under pressure from Prussia, which for a long time wanted to annex the northern Polish province of Royal Prussia, the three powers agreed on the First Partition of Poland. This was proposed under the threat of the possible Austrian-Ottoman alliance.[7] Only token objections were however raised by Austria,[5] which would have instead preferred to receive more Ottoman territories in the Balkans, a region which for a long time had been coveted by the Habsburgs. The Russians also withdrew from Moldavia away from the Austrian border. An attempt of Bar Confederates to kidnap King Poniatowski on 3 November 1771 gave the three courts a pretext to showcase the "Polish anarchy" and the need for its neighbors to step in and "save" the country and its citizens.
Already by 1769–71, both Austria and Prussia had annexed some border territories belonging to the Commonwealth.[5] On 19 February 1772, the agreement of partition was signed in Vienna.[7] A previous agreement between Prussia and Russia had been made in Saint Petersburg on 6 February 1772.[7] Early in August Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops simultaneously entered the Commonwealth and occupied the provinces agreed upon among themselves. On 5 August, the three parties signed the treaty on their respective territorial gains at the Commonwealth's expense.[3] The partition treaty was ratified by its signatories on 22 September 1772.[7]
After having occupied their respective territories, the three partitioning powers demanded that King Poniatowski and the
While the Polish king and the
Preparations
Preparations for the Sejm were not easy. Bishops Krasiński and Kajetan Sołtyk argued vocally against it.[8] At least 32 sejmiks (regional parliaments) that were to elect deputies to it were disrupted. Eventually less than half of the regular number of representatives – only about 102–111 (sources vary) deputies, the lowest number in the history of the Commonwealth – arrived in Warsaw, where they were joined by about 36 senators and ministers.[8][9][10] Most of the deputies from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania did not attend this Sejm.[10]
Russia was represented by Otto von Stackelberg, Prussia by Gedeon Benoit and Austria by Karl Reviczky.[11]
Partition Treaty
The Sejm began on 19 April (although some preliminary discussions took place days before).
Despite some protests, on 18 September 1773, the Committee formally signed the treaty of cession, renouncing all claims of the Commonwealth to the occupied territories.
Notable supporters of the partition, in addition to Poniński, included Michał Hieronim Radziwiłł and the bishops
The senators who protested were threatened by the Russians (represented by Ambassador Otto von Stackelberg), who declared that in the face of refusal the whole capital of Warsaw would be destroyed. Other threats included executions, confiscation of estates, and increase of territory subjected to partition.[19] Some senators were arrested and exiled to Siberia.[7]
Other legislation
The partitioning powers (in particular, Russia) demanded that the Sejm pass further reforms, with the intent of strengthening their power over the Commonwealth. The original commission was allowed to work till January 1774, extending the Sejm, which was adjourned again. The commission was unable to carry out its changes in that period, and thus it was allowed to extend its deliberations once more; there were ultimately seven such extensions.[8]
The
Royal power was restricted, as the king lost the power to give titles and positions of military officers, ministers and senators, and the
A trade treaty was signed between the Commonwealth and Prussia, unfavorable to the Commonwealth. The Partition cut off the Commonwealth's access to the Baltic Sea, and the state had no choice but to accept the high tariffs imposed by Prussia.[21][22]
The Sejm also created two notable institutions: the Permanent Council, a main governmental body in continuous operation, and the Commission of National Education.[9] The Council was intended by the partitioners to be an institution easier to control than the unruly Sejms, and indeed it remained under the influence of the Russian Empire. It was nonetheless a significant improvement in the Commonwealth governance.[8][9] The Council, with committees (ministries) on Foreign Affairs, Treasury, Defense, Justice and the Interior (Police), was able to interpret existing laws in the sphere of administration, and provided the Commonwealth with a continuous governing body that operated between the Sejms and was not affected by the liberum veto.[9] The Permanent Council was led by the king, had 36 members elected, half from each chamber of the Sejm, and ruled by majority vote (the king decided in case of a tie). The previously powerful ministers were placed under the control of the new council and supervised by the five parallel departments of the Council. The Council, in addition to its administrative duties, would present to the king three candidates for each nomination to the Senate and other main offices.[23]
The Commission of National Education, another type of a newly created ministry (a central state institution of a collegial structure), was one of the three Great Commissions (the other two were for the Treasury and the Army).
The new legislation was guaranteed by the Russian Empire, giving it another pretext to interfere in Commonwealth politics if the legislation was changed.[8]
Corruption was rampant. Deputies awarded themselves various starostwa and other privileges. Various fraudulent deals were made that channeled funds intended for government institutions, such as the Commission of National Education, to the pockets of the deputies and their allies.[8]
The commission ended its deliberations on 27 March 1775. The Sejm resumed, accepting the various new acts, and was finally ended on 11 April 1775.[8]
See also
- Administrative division of Polish territories after partitions
- Second Partition of Poland
Notes
a ^ The picture shows the rulers of the three countries that participated in the partition tearing a map of Poland apart. The outer figures demanding their share are Catherine II of Russia and Frederick II of Prussia. The inner figure on the right is the Habsburg Emperor Joseph II, who appears ashamed of his action (although in reality he was more of an advocate of the partition, and it was his mother, Maria Theresa, who was critical of the partition). On his left is the beleaguered Polish king, Stanisław August Poniatowski, who is experiencing difficulty keeping his crown on his head. Above the scene the angel of peace trumpets the news that civilized 18th-century sovereigns have accomplished their mission while avoiding war. The drawing gained notoriety in contemporary Europe, with bans on its distribution in several European countries.[26]
b ^ The 1773 papal bull Dominus ac Redemptor had ordered the Jesuits' suppression.
References
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-55917-1. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-521-79269-1. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
- ^ a b c d e f Poland, Partitions of. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 28 April 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9060581
- ISBN 978-0-521-87488-5 [page needed]
- ^ a b c d e Poland. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 5 May 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-28200 . Section: History > The Commonwealth > Reforms, agony, and partitions > The First Partition
- ISBN 978-0-19-158380-3.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Lewinski Corwin, Edward Henry (1917) [1917], The Political History of Poland, Google Print, pp. 310–315
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Władysław Smoleński (1919). Dzieje narodu polskiego [History of Polish Nation] (in Polish). Gebethner i Wolff. pp. 295–305. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7818-0637-4. Retrieved 13 August 2011.
- ^ a b c d "Sejmy rozbiorowe", WIEM Encyklopedia (in Polish), PL: ONet, archived from the original on 20 August 2017, retrieved 6 May 2008
- ^ a b Charles Francis Horne (1916), History of the German people from the first authentic annals to the present time, International Historical Society, pp. 290–292, retrieved 5 September 2011
- ^ Polski Słownik Biograficzny (in Polish), vol. XXXI/2, PL, pp. 231–37, archived from the original on 7 March 2010)
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ a b "Rejtan Tadeusz", WIEM Encyklopedia (in Polish), PL: ONet, archived from the original on 20 August 2017, retrieved 5 September 2011
- ^ ISBN 978-83-60186-58-9, retrieved 5 September 2011
- Polski Słownik Biograficzny, t. XI, 1964–1965, p. 180.
- ISBN 978-0-8386-3497-4.
- ISBN 978-0-521-55917-1. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-19-925339-5. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
- ^ "Szkolna Wydawnictwa", Historia Encyklopedia (in Polish), Szkolne i Pedagogiczne Warszawa, 1993, p. 525,
Opponents were threatened with executions, increase of partitioned territories, and destruction of the capital.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-295-98093-5, retrieved 5 September 2011
- ^ Polish Western Affairs (in Polish). Instytut Zachodni. 1980. p. 45.
- ISBN 978-0-521-02438-9.
- ^ ISBN 83-01-03732-6, pp. 72–73
- ISBN 978-0-415-35491-2. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-231-12819-3. Retrieved 24 October 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-8032-9832-3. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
External links
- "Sejmy rozbiorowe", WIEM Encyklopedia (in Polish), PL: Portal Wiedzy, archived from the original on 20 August 2017, retrieved 6 May 2008.
- "Sejmy rozbiorowe", Interia Encyklopedia (in Polish), PL.
- "Sejmy rozbiorowe", PWN Encyklopedia (in Polish), PL, archived from the original on 7 June 2011, retrieved 6 May 2008.
- Sejm Rozbiorowy – 1773–75 (in Polish), PL: PGI, archived from the original on 15 October 2013, retrieved 6 May 2008.
- 235. rocznica sejmu rozbiorowego (in Polish), Polskieradio, archived from the original on 26 May 2018, retrieved 6 May 2008
- 13: Próby reform na sejmie rozbiorowym in Polityka zagraniczna i wewnętrzna króla polskiego Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego (in Polish), PL: Pracemagisterskie.