Second Polish Republic
Republic of Poland Rzeczpospolita Polska (Polish) | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1918–1939 | |||||||||||
.svg) Flag
(1927–1939) .svg) Coat of arms
(1927–1939) | |||||||||||
| Anthem: Mazurek Dąbrowskiego (English: "Poland Is Not Yet Lost") (1927–1939) | |||||||||||
 The Second Polish Republic in 1930 | |||||||||||
 Administrative divisions of the Second Polish Republic in 1930 | |||||||||||
| Capital and largest city | Warsaw 52°13′48″N 21°00′40″E / 52.23000°N 21.01111°E | ||||||||||
| Official languages | Polish | ||||||||||
| Recognized regional languages | List
| ||||||||||
| Religion (1931) | Majority:
Minorities: 11.8% | ||||||||||
| Demonym(s) | Polish, Pole | ||||||||||
| Government | Unitary representative parliamentary republic (1918–1926) Unitary semi-presidential republic under a hybrid regime (1926–1935) Unitary presidential republic under an authoritarian dictatorship (1935–1939) | ||||||||||
| President | |||||||||||
• 1918–1922 | Józef Piłsudski[e] | ||||||||||
• 1922 | Gabriel Narutowicz | ||||||||||
• 1922–1926 | Stanisław Wojciechowski | ||||||||||
• 1926–1939 | Ignacy Mościcki | ||||||||||
Prime Minister | |||||||||||
• 1918–1919 (first) | Jędrzej Moraczewski | ||||||||||
• 1936–1939 (last) | Felicjan S. Składkowski | ||||||||||
| Legislature | Peace of Riga | 18 March 1921 | |||||||||
| 1 September 1939 | |||||||||||
| 17 September 1939 | |||||||||||
| 28 September 1939 | |||||||||||
| 6 October 1939 | |||||||||||
| Area | |||||||||||
• Total | 388,634 km2 (150,052 sq mi) | ||||||||||
| Population | |||||||||||
• 1921 | 25,694,700[3] | ||||||||||
• 1931 | 31,915,779[4] | ||||||||||
| Currency | Marka (until 1924) Złoty (after 1924) | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| Today part of | Poland Belarus Ukraine Lithuania Latvia Czech Republic Slovakia | ||||||||||
The Second Polish Republic,[f] at the time officially known as the Republic of Poland,[g] was a country in Central and Eastern Europe that existed between 7 October 1918 and 6 October 1939. The state was established in the final stage of World War I. The Second Republic ceased to exist in 1939, after Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and the Slovak Republic, marking the beginning of the European theatre of the Second World War. The Polish government-in-exile was established in Paris and later London after the fall of France in 1940.
When, after several regional conflicts, most importantly the victorious
The Second Republic maintained moderate economic development. The cultural hubs of interwar Poland – Warsaw, Kraków, Poznań, Wilno, and Lwów – became major European cities and the sites of internationally acclaimed universities and other institutions of higher education. Although Polish Jews were some of the biggest supporters of Second Republic leader Józef Piłsudski, even after he returned to politics and staged a coup in 1926, after his death in 1935 Pilsudskites ruling the Republic began to openly discriminate against its Jewish (and, to a lesser extent, its Ukrainian) citizens, restricting Jewish entry into professions and placing limitations on Jewish businesses.[5][6][7][8]
Name
The official name of the state was the Republic of Poland. In the Polish language, it was referred to as Rzeczpospolita Polska (abbr. RP), with the term Rzeczpospolita being a traditional name for the republic when referring to various Polish states, including the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (considered to be the First Polish Republic, Pierwsza Rzeczpospolita), and later, the current Third Polish Republic. In other regionally-used official languages, the state was referred to as: Republik Polen in German, Польська Республіка (transcription: Polʹsʹka Respublika) in Ukrainian, Польская Рэспубліка (transcription: Poĺskaja Respublika) in Belarusian, and Lenkijos Respublika, in Lithuanian.
Between 14 November 1918[9] and 13 March 1919,[10] the state was referred to in Polish as Republika Polska, instead of Rzeczpospolita Polska. Both terms mean the Republic; however, republika is a general term, while Rzeczpospolita traditionally refers exclusively to Polish states. Additionally, between 8 November 1918 and 16 August 1919, the Journal of Laws of the State of Poland referred to the country as the State of Poland (Polish: Państwo Polskie).[11]
Following the end of the
Background
After more than a
End of the First World War
Over the course of the
Formation of the Republic
In 1918–1919, over 100
Centres of government that formed at that time in
Politics and government
The Second Polish Republic was a
The major political parties at this time were the
After the Polish–Soviet War,
|
Presidents and Prime ministers (November 1918 – September 1939) 
Chief of State
Presidents
Prime ministers
|
Military
Interwar Poland had a large army of 270,000 soldiers on active duty: in 37 infantry divisions, 11 cavalry brigades, and two armored brigades, plus artillery units. Another 700,000 men served in the reserves. At the outbreak of the war, the Polish Army was able to put in the field almost one million soldiers, 4,300 guns, around 1,000 armored vehicles including in between 200 and 300 tanks (the majority of the armored vehicles were outclassed tankettes) and 745 aircraft (however, only around 450 of them were bombers and fighters available to fight as of 1 September 1939).[25]
The training of the Polish Army was thorough. The non-commissioned officers were a competent body of men with expert knowledge and high ideals. The officers, both senior and junior, constantly refreshed their training in the field and in the lecture hall, where modern technical achievement and the lessons of contemporary wars were demonstrated and discussed. The equipment of the Polish Army was less developed technically than that of Nazi Germany and its rearmament was slowed by confidence in Western European military support and by budget difficulties.[26]
The Polish command system at the level of the entire Polish military and the armies was obsolete. The generals in command of armies had to ask permission from the high command. The Polish military attempted to organize fronts made of army groups only when it was already too late during the Polish Defensive War in 1939.
Economy
After regaining its independence, Poland was faced with major economic difficulties. In addition to the devastation brought by the First World War, the exploitation of the Polish economy by the German and Russian occupying powers, and the sabotage performed by retreating armies, the new republic was faced with the task of economically unifying disparate economic regions, which had previously been part of different countries and different empires.
In addition to this was the massive destruction left after both the First World War and the
| Year | Int$.
|
|---|---|
| 1922 | 1,382 |
| 1929 | 2,117 |
| 1930 | 1,994 |
| 1931 | 1,823 |
| 1932 | 1,658 |
| 1933 | 1,590 |
| 1934 | 1,593 |
| 1935 | 1,597 |
| 1936 | 1,626 |
| 1937 | 1,915 |
| 1938 | 2,182 |
Hostile relations with neighbours were a major problem for the economy of interbellum Poland. In the year 1937,
Piłsudski's regime followed the conservative free-market economic tradition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth throughout its existence. Poland had one of the lowest taxation rates in Europe, with 9.3% of taxes as a distribution of national income. Piłsudski's regime was also heavily dependent on foreign investments and economies, with 45.4% of Polish equity capital controlled by foreign corporations. After the Great Depression, the Polish economy crumbled and failed to recover until Ignacy Mościcki's government introduced economic reforms with more government interventions with an increase in tax revenues and public spending after Piłsudski's death. These interventionist policies saw Poland's economy recover from the recession.[31]
The basis of Poland's gradual recovery after the
Interbellum Poland was also a country with numerous social problems. Unemployment was high, and poverty in the countryside was widespread, which resulted in several cases of social unrest, such as the
Major industrial centres
Interbellum Poland was unofficially divided into two parts – better developed "Poland A" in the west, and underdeveloped "Poland B" in the east. Polish industry was concentrated in the west, mostly in Polish
Besides coal mining, Poland also had deposits of oil in
Transport
According to the 1939 Statistical Yearbook of Poland, the total length of the railways in Poland (as of 31 December 1937) was 20,118 km (12,501 mi). Rail density was 5.2 km (3.2 mi) per 100 km2 (39 sq mi). Railways were very dense in the western part of the country, while in the east, especially
In the interbellum, the road network of Poland was dense, but the quality of the roads was very poor – only 7% of all roads were paved and ready for automobile use, and none of the major cities were connected with each other by a good-quality highway. In 1939 the Poles built only one highway: 28 km of straight concrete road connecting the villages of Warlubie and Osiek (mid-northern Poland). It was designed by Italian engineer Piero Puricelli.
_w_Gda%C5%84sku.JPG)
In the mid-1930s, Poland had 340,000 km (211,266 mi) of roads, but only 58,000 had a hard surface (gravel, cobblestone or sett), and 2,500 were modern, with an asphalt or concrete surface. In different parts of the country, there were sections of paved roads, which suddenly ended, and were followed by dirt roads.[37] The poor condition of the roads was the result of both long-lasting foreign dominance and inadequate funding. On 29 January 1931, the Polish Parliament created the State Road Fund, the purpose of which was to collect money for the construction and conservation of roads. The government drafted a 10-year plan, with road priorities: a highway from Wilno, through Warsaw and Kraków, to Zakopane (called Marshal Piłsudski Highway), asphalt highways from Warsaw to Poznań and Łódź, as well as a Warsaw ring road. However, the plan turned out to be too ambitious, with insufficient money in the national budget to pay for it. In January 1938, the Polish Road Congress estimated that Poland would need to spend three times as much money on roads to keep up with Western Europe.
In 1939, before the outbreak of the war,
Agriculture
Statistically, the majority of citizens lived in the countryside (75% in 1921). Farmers made up 65% of the population. In 1929, agricultural production made up 65% of Poland's GNP.
German trade
Beginning in June 1925, there was a customs' war, with the
Education and culture
In 1919, the Polish government introduced compulsory education for all children aged 7 to 14, in an effort to limit illiteracy, which was widespread, especially in the former Russian Partition and the Austrian Partition of eastern Poland. In 1921, one-third of citizens of Poland remained illiterate (38% in the countryside). The process was slow, but by 1931 the illiteracy level had dropped to 23% overall (27% in the countryside) and further down to 18% in 1937. By 1939, over 90% of children attended school.[36][44] In 1932, Janusz Jędrzejewicz, the Minister for Religion and Education, carried out a major reform which introduced two main levels of education: common school (szkoła powszechna), with three levels – 4 grades + 2 grades + 1 grade; and middle school (szkoła średnia), with two levels – 4 grades of comprehensive middle school and 2 grades of specified high school (classical, humanistic, natural and mathematical). A graduate of middle school received a small matura, while a graduate of high school received a big matura, which enabled them to seek university-level education.
Before 1918, Poland had three universities:
Polish science in the interbellum was renowned for its mathematicians gathered around the
In
Theatre was immensely popular in the interbellum, with three main centres in the cities of Warsaw, Wilno and Lwów. Altogether, there were 103 theatres in Poland and a number of other theatrical institutions (including 100 folk theatres). In 1936, different shows were seen by 5 million people, and main figures of Polish theatre of the time were Juliusz Osterwa, Stefan Jaracz, and Leon Schiller. Also, before the outbreak of the war, there were approximately one million radios (see Radio stations in interwar Poland).
Administrative divisions
The administrative division of the Second Republic was based on a three-tier system, referring to the
| Polish voivodeships (1 April 1937) | |||||
Car plates (starting 1937) |
Voivodeship or city |
Capital | Area (1930) in 1,000s km2 |
Population (1931) in 1,000s | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 00–19 | City of Warsaw | Warsaw | 0.14 | 1,179.5 | |
| 85–89 | warszawskie |
Warsaw | 31.7 | 2,460.9 | |
| 20–24 | białostockie |
Białystok | 26.0 | 1,263.3 | |
| 25–29 | kieleckie |
Kielce | 22.2 | 2,671.0 | |
| 30–34 | krakowskie | Kraków | 17.6 | 2,300.1 | |
| 35–39 | lubelskie |
Lublin | 26.6 | 2,116.2 | |
| 40–44 | lwowskie | Lwów | 28.4 | 3,126.3 | |
| 45–49 | łódzkie |
Łódź | 20.4 | 2,650.1 | |
| 50–54 | nowogródzkie |
Nowogródek | 23.0 | 1,057.2 | |
| 55–59 | poleskie (Polesia) | Brześć nad Bugiem | 36.7 | 1,132.2 | |
| 60–64 | pomorskie (Pomeranian) |
Toruń | 25.7 | 1,884.4 | |
| 65–69 | poznańskie |
Poznań | 28.1 | 2,339.6 | |
| 70–74 | stanisławowskie | Stanisławów | 16.9 | 1,480.3 | |
| 75–79 | śląskie (Silesian) |
Katowice | 5.1 | 1,533.5 | |
| 80–84 | tarnopolskie | Tarnopol | 16.5 | 1,600.4 | |
| 90–94 | wileńskie |
Wilno | 29.0 | 1,276.0 | |
| 95–99 | wołyńskie (Volhynian) |
Łuck | 35.7 | 2,085.6 | |
| The borders of several western and central voivodeships were revised on 1 April 1938 | |||||
Demographics
Historically, Poland was almost always a multiethnic country. This was especially true for the Second Republic, when independence was once again achieved in the wake of the
Poland was also a nation of many religions. In 1921, 16,057,229 Poles (approx. 62.5%) were
By 1931, Poland had the second largest Jewish population in the world, with one-fifth of all the world's Jews residing within its borders (approx. 3,136,000).[47] The urban population of interbellum Poland was rising steadily; in 1921, only 24% of Poles lived in the cities, in the late 1930s, that proportion grew to 30%. In more than a decade, the population of Warsaw grew by 200,000, Łódź by 150,000, and Poznań – by 100,000. This was due not only to internal migration, but also to an extremely high birth rate.[36]
Largest cities in the Second Polish Republic
| City | Population | Voivodeship | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 |  Warsaw |
1,289,000 | Warsaw Voivodeship
|
| 2 |  Łódź |
672,000 | Łódź Voivodeship |
| 3 | Lwów |
318,000 | Lwów Voivodeship |
| 4 |  Poznań |
272,000 | Poznań Voivodeship |
| 5 |  Kraków |
259,000 | Kraków Voivodeship |
| 6 | Wilno |
209,000 | Wilno Voivodeship
|
| 7 |  Bydgoszcz |
141,000 | Poznań Voivodeship later Pomeranian Voivodeship |
| 8 | .svg){kind=small} Częstochowa |
138,000 | Kielce Voivodeship |
| 9 |  Katowice |
134,000 | Silesian Voivodeship |
| 10 |  Sosnowiec |
130,000 | Kielce Voivodeship |
| 11 |  Chorzów |
128,000 | Silesian Voivodeship |
| 12 |  Lublin |
122,000 | Lublin Voivodeship |
| 13 |  Gdynia |
120,000 | Pomeranian Voivodeship |
| 14 |  Białystok |
107,000 | Białystok Voivodeship |
| 15 |  Kalisz |
81,000 | Poznań Voivodeship |
| 16 |  Radom |
78,000 | Kielce Voivodeship |
| 17 |  Toruń |
62,000 | Pomeranian Voivodeship |
| 18 | Stanisławów |
60,000 | Stanisławów Voivodeship |
| 19 |  Kielce |
58,000 | Kielce Voivodeship |
| 20 |  Włocławek |
56,000 | Pomeranian Voivodeship |
| 21 |  Grudziądz |
54,000 | Pomeranian Voivodeship |
| 22 | Brześć nad Bugiem |
51,000 | Polesie Voivodeship |
| 23 |  Piotrków Trybunalski |
51,000 | Łódź Voivodeship |
| 24 |  Przemyśl |
51,000 | Lwów Voivodeship |
Prewar population density
| Date | Population | Percentage of rural population |
Population density (per km2) |
Ethnic minorities (total) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
30 September 1921 (census)
|
27,177,000 | 75.4% | 69.9 | 30,77%[47] |
9 December 1931 (census)
|
32,348,000 | 72.6% | 82.6 | 31.09% |
| 31 December 1938 (estimate) | 34,849,000 | 70.0% | 89.7 | Upward trend in immigration |
Status of ethnic minorities
Jews
From the 1920s, the Polish government excluded Jews from receiving government bank loans, public sector employment, and obtaining business licenses. From the 1930s, measures were taken against Jewish shops, Jewish export firms, Shechita as well as limitations being placed on Jewish admission to the medical and legal professions, Jews in business associations and the enrollment of Jews into universities. The political movement National Democracy (Endecja, from the abbreviation "ND") often organised anti-Jewish business boycotts.[5] Following the death of Marshal Józef Piłsudski in 1935, the Endecja intensified their efforts, which triggered violence in extreme cases in smaller towns across the country.[5] In 1937, the National Democracy movement passed resolutions that "its main aim and duty must be to remove the Jews from all spheres of social, economic, and cultural life in Poland".[5] The government in response organised the Camp of National Unity (OZON), which in 1938 took control of the Polish Sejm and subsequently drafted anti-Semitic legislation similar to the Anti-Jewish laws in Germany, Hungary, and Romania. OZON advocated mass emigration of Jews from Poland, numerus clausus (see also Ghetto benches), and other limitations on Jewish rights. According to William W. Hagen, by 1939, prior to the war, Polish Jews were threatened with conditions similar to those in Nazi Germany.[6]
Ukrainians
The pre-war government also restricted the rights of people who declared Ukrainian nationality, belonged to the
Geography
The Second Polish Republic was mainly flat with an average elevation of 233 m (764 ft)
The country's total area, after the annexation of Trans-Olza, was 389,720 km2 (150,470 sq mi). It extended 903 km (561 mi) from north to south and 894 km (556 mi) from east to west. On 1 January 1938, total length of boundaries was 5,529 km (3,436 mi), including: 140 km (87 mi) of coastline (out of which 71 km (44 mi) were made by the
Waters
Almost 75% of the territory of interbellum Poland was drained northward into the Baltic Sea by the
(41,400 km2 or 16,000 sq mi)Invasion of Poland in 1939
The beginning of the
Polish war plans (Plan West and Plan East) failed as soon as Germany invaded in 1939. The Polish losses in combat against Germans (killed and missing in action) amounted to ca. 70,000 men. Some 420,000 of them were taken prisoners. Losses against the Red Army (which invaded Poland on 17 September) added up to 6,000 to 7,000 of casualties and MIA, 250,000 were taken prisoners. Although the Polish Army – considering the inactivity of the Allies – was in an unfavourable position – it managed to inflict serious losses to the enemies: 20,000 German soldiers were killed or MIA, 674 tanks and 319 armored vehicles destroyed or badly damaged, 230 aircraft shot down; the Red Army lost (killed and MIA) about 2,500 soldiers, 150 combat vehicles and 20 aircraft. The Soviet invasion of Poland, and lack of promised aid from the Western Allies, contributed to the Polish forces defeat by 6 October 1939.
A popular myth is that Polish cavalry armed with lances charged German tanks during the September 1939 campaign. This often repeated account, first reported by Italian journalists as German propaganda, concerned an action by the Polish 18th Lancer Regiment near Chojnice. This arose from misreporting of a single clash on 1 September 1939 near Krojanty, when two squadrons of the Polish 18th Lancers armed with sabers surprised and wiped out a German infantry formation with a mounted saber charge. Shortly after midnight the 2nd (Motorized) Division was compelled to withdraw by Polish cavalry, before the Poles were caught in the open by German armored cars. The story arose because some German armored cars appeared and gunned down 20 troopers as the cavalry escaped. Even this failed to persuade everyone to reexamine their beliefs—there were some who thought Polish cavalry had been improperly employed in 1939.
Between 1945 and 1990, the
See also
- History of Poland (1918–1939)
- 1938 in Poland
- 1939 in Poland
- Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, also known as the "First Polish Republic" and described as a "republic under the presidency of the King"
Notes
- ^ In Silesian Voivodeship.[1]
- Grodno and Wołkowysk Counties).[2]
- ^ In the part of Wilno Voivodeship (until 1926 Wilno Land), in Święciany County, and several municipilaties of the Wilno-Troki County.[2]
- ^ In Lwów, Polesian, Stanisławów, Tarnopol, and Volhynian Voivodeships.[2]
- Chief of State.
- ^ Polish: II Rzeczpospolita, Druga Rzeczpospolita, abbr.: II RP
- ^ Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska, Belarusian: Польская Рэспубліка, romanized: Polskaja Respublika, German: Republik Polen, Lithuanian: Lenkijos Respublika, Ukrainian: Польська Республіка, romanized: Pol's'ka Respublika, abbr.: RP
References
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- ^ a b c "Ustawa z dnia 31 lipca 1924 r. o języku państwowym i języku urzędowania rządowych i samorządowych władz administracyjnych (Dz.U. z 1924 r. nr 73, poz. 724)". Archived from the original on 18 December 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2021.
- ^ Central Statistical Office of the Polish Republic (1927). Population of Poland according to religious denominations and nationality [Ludność według wyznania religijnego i narodowości] (PDF). Warszawa: GUS. page 80/109 in PDF, page 56 in census results: Table XI. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^ "Główny Urząd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, drugi powszechny spis ludności z dn. 9.XII 1931 r. - Mieszkania i gospodarstwa domowe ludność" [Central Statistical Office the Polish Republic, the second census dated 9.XII 1931 - Abodes and household populace] (PDF) (in Polish). Central Statistical office of the Polish Republic. 1938. Archived from the original (PDF, direct download, table: page 30) on 17 March 2014.
- ^
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- ^ Powszechny Spis Ludnosci r. 1921
- ^ Revyuk, Emil (8 July 1931). "Polish Atrocities in Ukraine". Svoboda Press. Archived from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2020 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-0-920862-25-4– via Internet Archive.
ukrainophobia poland rights.
- ^ "II RP nie lubiła Ukraińców?". klubjagiellonski.pl. Archived from the original on 8 July 2019. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
Further reading
- Davies, Norman. God's Playground. A History of Poland. Vol. 2: 1795 to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981. pp 393–434
- Latawaski, Paul. Reconstruction of Poland 1914–23 (1992)
- Leslie, R. F. et al. The History of Poland since 1863. Cambridge U. Press, 1980. 494 pp.
- Lukowski, Jerzy and Zawadzki, Hubert. A Concise History of Poland. Cambridge U. Press, 2nd ed 2006. 408pp. excerpts and search
- Pogonowski, Iwo Cyprian. Poland: A Historical Atlas. Hippocrene, 1987. 321 pp. new designed maps
- Stachura, Peter D. Poland, 1918–1945: An Interpretive and Documentary History of the Second Republic (2004) online Archived 26 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine
- Stachura, Peter D. ed. Poland Between the Wars, 1918–1939 (1998) essays by scholars
- Watt, Richard M. Bitter Glory: Poland and Its Fate, 1918–1939 (1998) excerpt and text search, comprehensive survey
Politics and diplomacy
- Cienciala, Anna M. "The Foreign Policy of Józef Pi£sudski and Józef Beck, 1926–1939: Misconceptions and Interpretations", The Polish Review (2011) 56#1 pp. 111–151; earlier version.
- Cienciala, Anna M. (1968), Poland the Western Powers, 1938–1939. A Study in the Interdependence of Eastern and Western Europe. PDF, Kansas U. Press.
- Cienciala, Anna M., and Titus Komarnicki (1984), From Versailles to Locarno, Keys to Polish Foreign Policy, 1919–1925 PDF, Kansas U. Press.
- Drzewieniecki, Walter M. "The Polish Army on the Eve of World War II", Polish Review (1981) 26#3 pp 54–64.
- Garlicki, Andrzej. Józef Piłsudski, 1867–1935 (New York: Scolar Press 1995), scholarly biography; one-vol version of 4 vol Polish edition
- Hetherington, Peter. Unvanquished: Joseph Pilsudski, Resurrected Poland, and the Struggle for Eastern Europe (2012) 752pp excerpt and text search
- Jędrzejewicz, W. Piłsudski. A Life for Poland (1982), scholarly biography
- Kantorosinski, Zbigniew. Emblem of Good Will: a Polish Declaration of Admiration and Friendship for the United States of America. Washington, DC: Library of Congress (1997)
- Polonsky, A. Politics in Independent Poland, 1921–1939: The Crisis of Constitutional Government (1972)
- Riekhoff, H. von. German-Polish Relations, 1918–1933 (Johns Hopkins University Press 1971)
- Rothschild, J. Piłsudski's Coup d'État (New York: Columbia University Press 1966)
- Wandycz, P. S. Polish Diplomacy 1914–1945: Aims and Achievements (1988)
- Wandycz, P. S. Soviet-Polish Relations, 1917–1921 (Harvard University Press 1969)
- Wandycz, P. S. The United States and Poland (1980)
- Zamoyski, Adam. Warsaw 1920: Lenin's Failed Conquest of Europe (2008) excerpt and text search
- Zimmerman, Joshua D. Jozef Pilsudski: Founding Father of Modern Poland (Harvard University Press, 2022) online review
Social and economic topics
- Abramsky, C. et al. eds. The Jews in Poland (Oxford: Blackwell 1986)
- Blanke, R. Orphans of Versailles. The Germans in Western Poland, 1918–1939 (1993)
- Gutman, Y. et al. eds. The Jews of Poland Between Two World Wars (1989).
- Landau, Z. and Tomaszewski, J. The Polish Economy in the Twentieth Century (Routledge, 1985)
- Moklak, Jaroslaw. The Lemko Region in the Second Polish Republic: Political and Interdenominational Issues 1918–1939 (2013); covers Old Rusyns, Moscophiles and National Movement Activists, & the political role of the Greek Catholic and Orthodox Churches
- Olszewski, A. K. An Outline of Polish Art and Architecture, 1890–1980 (Warsaw: Interpress 1989.)
- Roszkowski, W. Landowners in Poland, 1918–1939 (Cambridge University Press, 1991)
- Staniewicz, Witold. "The Agrarian Problem in Poland between the Two World Wars", Slavonic and East European Review (1964) 43#100 pp. 23–33.
- Taylor, J. J. The Economic Development of Poland, 1919–1950 (Cornell University Press 1952)
- Wynot, E. D. Warsaw Between the Wars. Profile of the Capital City in a Developing Land, 1918–1939 (1983)
- Żółtowski, A. Border of Europe. A Study of the Polish Eastern Provinces (London: Hollis & Carter 1950)
- Eva Plach, "Dogs and dog breeding in interwar Poland", Canadian Slavonic Papers 60. no 3–4
Primary sources
- Small Statistical Yearbook, 1932 (Mały rocznik statystyczny 1932) complete text (in Polish)
- Small Statistical Yearbook, 1939 (Mały rocznik statystyczny 1939) complete text (in Polish)
Historiography
- Kenney, Padraic. "After the Blank Spots Are Filled: Recent Perspectives on Modern Poland", Journal of Modern History (2007) 79#1 pp. 134–61, in JSTOR
- Polonsky, Antony. "The History of Inter-War Poland Today", Survey (1970) pp. 143–159.
External links
- Polish Tangos: The Unique Inter-War Soundtrack to Poland's Independence
- Polish Cinema's Golden Age: The Glamour & Progress Of Poland's Inter-War Films
- 'Pakty i Fakty': The Last-Ever Polish Interwar Cabaret Revue
- Map of Poland (March 1920) from the Leventhal Map & Education Center at the Boston Public Library
- Poland in 1938 just before WW2 early color movie summary by Marie Sklodowska-Curie