Phytolacca americana
Phytolacca americana | |
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Scientific classification ![]() | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Order: | Caryophyllales |
Family: | Phytolaccaceae |
Genus: | Phytolacca |
Species: | P. americana
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Binomial name | |
Phytolacca americana | |
Synonyms[2][3] | |
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Phytolacca americana, also known as American pokeweed, pokeweed, poke sallet, pokeberry, dragonberries, pigeonberry weed, and inkberry, is a
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/American_pokeweed_%28lat._Phytolacca_americana%29.jpg/220px-American_pokeweed_%28lat._Phytolacca_americana%29.jpg)
Pokeweed is native to eastern
The first word in its scientific name, Phytolacca americana, comes from the Greek words phyton (plant) and
Description
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Pokeberries.png/220px-Pokeberries.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Mature_Pokeweed.jpg/220px-Mature_Pokeweed.jpg)
Pokeweed is a member of the family
Pokeweeds reproduce only by their large, glossy black, lens-shaped seeds, which are contained in a fleshy, 10-celled, purple-to-near-black berry that has crimson juice. The flowers are
The seeds have long viability, able to germinate after many years in the soil.Morphology
This section needs additional citations for verification. (September 2016) |
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Phytolacca_americana_cluster_-_single.jpg/170px-Phytolacca_americana_cluster_-_single.jpg)
Plant Type: Perennial herbaceous plant which can reach a height of 3 m (10 ft)[11] but is usually 1.2 to 2 m (4 to 6+1⁄2 ft). The plant must be a few years old before the root grows large enough to support this size. The stem is usually red late in the season. There is an upright, erect central stem early in the season, which changes to a spreading, horizontal form later with the weight of the berries. The plant dies back to the roots each winter. The stem has a chambered pith.
Leaves: The leaves are alternate with coarse texture with moderate porosity. Leaves can reach 41 centimetres (16 inches) in length. Each leaf is entire. Leaves are medium green and smooth, with a distinct odor that many characterize as unpleasant.
Flowers: The flowers have 5 regular parts with upright stamens and are up to 5 millimetres (1⁄4 in) wide. They have white petal-like sepals without true petals, on white pedicels and peduncles in an upright or drooping raceme, which darken as the plant fruits. Blooms first appear in early summer and continue into early fall.
Fruit: A shiny dark purple berry held in racemose clusters on pink pedicels with a pink peduncle. Pedicels without berries have a distinctive rounded five part calyx. Fruits are round with a flat indented top and bottom. Immature berries are green, turning white and then blackish purple.
Root: Thick central taproot which grows deep and spreads horizontally. Rapid growth. Tan cortex, white pulp, moderate number of rootlets. Transversely cut root slices show concentric rings. No nitrogen fixation ability.
Chemistry
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Pokeberrygenin.svg/220px-Pokeberrygenin.svg.png)
The entire pokeweed plant contains
The roots also contain other triterpenoids such as oleanolic acid, α-spinasterol and its glucoside, α-spinasteryl-β-D-glucoside, and a palmityl-derivative, 6-palmytityl-α-spinasteryl-6-D-glucoside, as well as a similarly functionalized stigmasterol derivative, 6-palmityl-Δ7-stigmasterol-Δ-D-glucoside.[15] Pokeweed berries also contain betalain pigments such as betanin and others.[17] The leaves contain a number of common flavonols.[17] Seeds of pokeweed contain the phenolic aldehyde caffeic aldehyde.[18] Pokeweed also contains lectins, such as pokeweed mitogen.[19]
Common names
Phytolacca americana or pokeweed is also known as pokeberry,
Down there we have a plant that grows out in the woods, and the fields
And it looks somethin' like a turnip green
Everybody calls it polk salad
Now that's polk salad— Tony Joe White, Polk Salad Annie
Distribution and habitat
Pokeweed is native to eastern
.Ecology
Birds are unaffected by the poisons in the berries,[9] and eat them, dispersing the seeds. The berries are reported to be a good food source for songbirds and other bird species and small animals that are unaffected by its toxins.[24] Distribution via birds is thought to account for the appearance of isolated plants in areas otherwise free from pokeweed.[9]
Pokeweed berries are reported to be a good food source for songbirds such as
Pokeweed is sometimes used as a food source by black bears.[26]
Pokeweed is used as a sometime food source by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Japanese_beetles_on_poke_weed.jpg/170px-Japanese_beetles_on_poke_weed.jpg)
Toxicity
All parts of the plant can be toxic and pose risks to human and mammalian health.[9][28][29][30][31] Toxins are found in highest concentration in the rootstock, then leaves and stems, then the ripe fruit.[28][29] The plant generally gets more toxic with maturity,[28] with the exception of the berries, which are dangerous even while green.[31]
Children may be attracted by clusters of berries.[9] Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center (OARDC) notes:[28]
Children are most frequently poisoned by eating raw berries. Infants are especially sensitive and have died from eating only a few raw berries. Adults have been poisoned, sometimes fatally, by eating improperly prepared leaves and shoots, especially if part of the root is harvested with the shoot, and by mistaking the root for an edible tuber. Research with humans has also shown that common pokeweed can cause mutations (possibly leading to cancer) and birth defects. Since the juice of pokeweed can be absorbed through the skin, contact of plant parts with bare skin should be avoided.
Pokeweed is to be avoided during pregnancy and children consuming even one berry may require emergency treatment.[13] The plant sap can cause dermatitis in sensitive people.[13]
The plant is not palatable to most animals and is avoided unless little else is available or it is present in contaminated hay, but horses, sheep and cattle have been poisoned by eating fresh leaves or green fodder and pigs have been poisoned by eating the roots.[28][copyright violation?]
If death occurs, it is usually due to respiratory paralysis.[9]
Pokeweed poisoning was common in eastern North America during the 19th century, especially from the use of tinctures as antirheumatic preparations and from ingestion of berries and roots that were mistaken for parsnip, Jerusalem artichoke, or horseradish.[32]
Symptoms and response to poisoning
Owen states:[9]
If taken internally, pokeweed is a slow acting but a violent
emetic. Vomiting usually starts about 2 hours after the plant or parts of it have been eaten. Severe cases of poisoning result in purging, spasms, and sometimes convulsions. If death occurs, it is usually due to paralysis of the respiratory organs. Cases of animal or human poisoning should be handled by a veterinarian or a physician.
The OARDC staff scientists note that symptoms of poisoning include "a burning sensation in the mouth, salivation, gastrointestinal cramps, and vomiting and bloody diarrhea", and that depending upon the amount consumed, more severe symptoms can occur, including "anemia, altered heart rate and respiration, convulsions and death from respiratory failure."[28] If only small quantities are ingested, people and animals recover within one to two days.[28][33]
Uses
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Woman_preparing_poke_salad.jpg/220px-Woman_preparing_poke_salad.jpg)
Horticulture
Some pokeweeds are grown as ornamental plants, mainly for their attractive berries. A number of cultivars have been selected for larger fruit panicles.[34]
Folk and alternative medicine
Owen notes that "Indians and early settlers used the root in poultices and certain drugs for skin diseases and rheumatism."[9]
The late 19th century herbal, the King's American Dispensatory, describes various folk medical uses that led individuals to ingest pokeberry products.[35] Phytolacca extract was advertised as a prescription weight loss drug in the 1890s.[36]
Pokeweed is promoted in alternative medicine as a dietary supplement intended to treat a wide range of maladies including mumps, arthritis and various skin conditions.[37] While pokeweed has been subject to laboratory research, there is no medical evidence that it has any beneficial effect on human health.[37]
Food uses
Poke is a traditional southern Appalachian food. The leaves and stems of young plants can be eaten, but must be cooked by boiling two or more times with the water drained and replaced each time.[11] The leaves taste similar to spinach; the stems, similar to asparagus.[38] A 1917 article on edible weeds stated that pokeweed shoots were popular in Pennsylvania, "tied in small bundles, boiled the same way as asparagus, and served with cream sauce or melted butter."[39]
The roots are poisonous, as are mature leaves and stems.[11] Some festivals still celebrate the plant's use in its historical food preparations.
As late as the 1990s two companies commercially canned and sold pokeweed, but in 2000 the last one, the Allen Canning Company of Siloam Springs, Arkansas, closed down its operation.[40]
Nutrition
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
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Energy | 84 kJ (20 kcal) |
3.1 g | |
Sugars | 1.6 g |
Dietary fiber | 1.5 g |
0.4 g | |
2.3 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 7% 1.1 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 7% 0.111 mg |
Vitamin C | 91% 82 mg |
Vitamin K | 90% 108 μg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 4% 53 mg |
Iron | 7% 1.2 mg |
Magnesium | 3% 14 mg |
Manganese | 15% 0.336 mg |
Phosphorus | 3% 33 mg |
Potassium | 6% 184 mg |
Sodium | 1% 18 mg |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[41] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[42] |
A 100g serving of pokeweed contains 20 calories and 3.1 grams of carbohydrates, 1.6 grams of sugars, 1.5 grams of dietary fiber, 0.4 grams of fat, 2.3 grams of protein, and is a rich source of vitamin A, vitamin B2, vitamin C, vitamin K, and manganese. It contains low levels of vitamin B1, vitamin B6, iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium.
Other uses
Plant toxins from Phytolacca are being explored as a means to control zebra mussels.[43][44]
The toxic extract of ripe pokeweed berries can be processed to yield a pink dye.[45][46][47] Early European settlers to North America would procure a fine red dye from the plant's roots.[48]
During the middle of the 19th century wine often was coloured with juice from pokeberries.[49]
Phytolacca contains lectins known as Pokeweed mitogen which are used to stimulate B-cell proliferation which is useful for B-cell assays, immunodeficiency diagnostic test, and immunotherapy.[50]
Cultural significance
In music
A 1969 hit written and performed by Tony Joe White, "Polk Salad Annie", is about poke sallet, the cooked greens-like dish made from pokeweed. The lyrics include:[51][52]
And in the fields looks somethin' like a turnip green
And everybody calls it polk salad, polk salad
Elvis Presley covered the song.
In local Southern festivals
Poke salad festivals are held annually in several small southern towns, though often these celebrations are only remotely related to the plant as food or medicine (see [53] and individual festival references below). Locations include:
- Toccoa, Georgia
- Arab, Alabama
- Blanchard, Louisiana[53]
- better source needed]
- Harlan, Kentucky[57]
In Oklahoma, poke salad may be added to the annual wild onion dinners.[58]
References
- ^ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0". explorer.natureserve.org.
- ^ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Theplantlist.org. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
- ^ "Flora of China online", Efloras.org, retrieved 15 August 2015
- ^ "Phytolacca americana (American Pokeweed, Common Pokeweed, Garnet, Pidgeon Berry, Poke, Pokeberry, Pokeweed, Scoke) | North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox". Plants.ces.ncsu.edu.
- ^ "Tropicos | Name - Phytolacca americana L. Var. Americana". Legacy.tropicos.org.
- ^ Oneto, Scott (August 15, 2018). "Pokeweed: A giant of a weed!". Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California.
- ^ "Pokeweed: A giant of a weed!". ANR Blogs.
- ^ "Phytolacca americana L. American Pokeweed Family" (PDF). New York Botanical Garden.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Michael D. K. Owen (1988). "Pokeweed (Phytolacca americana L.)" (PDF). Publication Pm-746 of the Iowa State University Extension Service, Ames, IA. Iowa State University. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
- ^ Each flower has 10 stamens and a 10-cell pistil and gives rise to a 10-celled berry
- ^ OCLC 244766414.
- ^ a b c d e f USDA-ARS, 2015, "Taxon: Phytolacca americana L.," at National Genetic Resources Program.Germplasm Resources Information Network – (GRIN) [Online Database], National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, see [1][permanent dead link], accessed 2 May 2015.
- ^ a b c Anon., 2015, "Entry: Phytolacca americana – L.," at Plants For A Future (organizational webpage), see [2], accessed 2 May 2015.
- .
- ^ .
- ^ Tang, W.; Eisenbrand, G. (1992). Chinese Drugs of Plant Origin: Chemistry, Pharmacology, and Use in Traditional and Modern Medicine. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. p. 765.
- ^ ISSN 1881-9060. Retrieved 2020-10-18.
- ^ Woo, W.S., Kang, S.S., 1979. A new phenolic aldehyde from the seeds of phytolacca americana. Soul Taehakkyo Saengyak Yonguso Opjukjip 18, 30–31.
- PMID 22238657.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-02-505470-7, see [3], accessed 2 May 2015.
- ^ Further unlisted names that appear in Hortus Third (Bailey, Bailey, et al., 1976, op. cit.) include: cancer jalap, oakum, garget, pocan, and scoke.
- ^ Further unlisted names that appear at WebMD include American Nightshade, American Spinach, Baie de Phytolaque d'Amérique, Bear's Grape, Branching Phytolacca, Cancer Jalap, Chongras, Coakum, Coakum-Chorngras, Cokan, Crowberry, Épinard de Cayenne, Épinard des Indes, Faux Vin, Fitolaca, Garget, Herbe à la Laque, Hierba Carmin, Jalap, Kermesbeere, Laque, Phytolacca Berry, Phytolacca americana, Phytolacca decandra, Phytolaque Américaine, Phytolaque à Baies, Phytolaque Commun, Phytolaque d'Amérique, Pocan, Raisin d'Amérique, Red Plant, Scoke, Skoke, Teinturier, Teinturière, Vigne de Judée. See WebMD, 2015, "Pokeweed," at WebMD: Vitamin and Supplement (online), [4], accessed 2 May 2015.
- USDANatural Resources Conservation Service: PLANTS Database. Retrieved 16 November 2017.
- ^ a b Nancy L. Matthews, 1987, "Appendix F: Hab itat Assessment Manual," in Report: Anne Arundel Co., Offc. Planning and Zoning, Environmental and Special Projects Div., to Office of Coastal Resources Management, NOAA and State of Maryland Chesapeake Bay Critical Area Commission, August 1987, 9 pages, passim see [5], accessed 2 May 2015.
- ^ Other birds reported to include pokeweed in their diets include bluebirds, crested flycatchers, fish crows, hairy woodpeckers, kingbirds, phoebes, robins, starlings, and yellaw-breasted chats, see Matthews, 1987, op. cit.
- ^ Najar, Jamie (2020-05-15). "Comparison of black bear diets in eastern Oklahoma across seasons and regions". Shareok: 6.
- ^ Donald W. Hall, 2015, "Giant woolly bear (larva), giant or great leopard moth (adult) [scientific name: Hypercompe scribonia (Stoll 1790) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae: Arctiinae)]," at Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences: Featured creatures, Gainesville, FL:Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry, Table 1, see "Giant woolly bear, great leopard moth - Hypercompe scribonia (Stoll 1790)". Archived from the original on 2015-09-20. Retrieved 2015-05-03., accessed 2 May 2–15.
- ^ a b c d e f g John Cardina; Cathy Herms; Tim Koch; Ted Webster (2015). "Entry: Common Pokeweed, Phytolacca americana". Ohio Perennial and Biennial Weed Guide. Wooster, OH: Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center (OARDC). Archived from the original on 16 March 2015. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
- ^ a b Jacob L. Heller (October 21, 2013). "Pokeweed poisoning". MedlinePlus. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
- ^ CBIF CPPIS (June 5, 2013). "All Plants (Scientific Name): Phytolacca americana". Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility, Species Bank, Canadian Poisonous Plants Information System. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
- ^ ISBN 978-3110245622. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
- PMID 501875.
- ^ One study performed in Oklahoma in 1962 concluded that the oral lethal dose of fresh poke berries in mice was about 300 gm/kg body weight and for dry berries was about 100 gm/kg body weight, and that liquid berry extract was 80 times as toxic when injected intraperitoneally as when taken orally. See Ogzewalla; Mossberg; Beck; Farrington (1962). "Studies on the Toxicity of Poke Berries" (PDF). Proc. of the Okla. Acad. Of Sci.: 54–57. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-12-19.
- ^ "Phytolacca americana American pokeweed". Royal Horticultural Society. 2017. Retrieved 16 November 2017.
White-pink flowers appear in racemes from mid-summer to early autumn, followed by crimson-black berries in autumn
- ^ John King, Harvey Wickes Felter & John Uri Lloyd, 1898, "Entry: Phytolacca," in King's American Dispensatory, Cincinnati : Ohio Valley Co., see [6] and [7], accessed 2 May 2015.
- ^ The Medical and surgical reporter (69th, July–Dec 1893 ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Crissy & Markley, Printers. 1858. p. 1561.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-944235-71-3.
- ISBN 978-0-19-973496-2.
- . Retrieved 2024-03-07 – via HathiTrust.
- ^ "Pokeweed: Prime Potherb". Eattheweeds.com. Retrieved 2024-05-20.
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- from the original on 2024-05-09. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
- ISBN 0873716965, see [8], accessed 5 May 2015.
- ^ US application 5252330, Harold H. Lee; Peter C. Fraleigh & Lemma Aklilu, "Method of controlling zebra mussels with extract of Phytolacca dodecandra", published 1993-10-12, assigned to University of Toledo.
- ^ Pesha Black & Micah Hahn, 2004, "Pokeweed, Phytolacca americana, Family: Phytolaccaceae," at [Guide to] Practical Plants of New England (student project pages), see "Pokeweed". Archived from the original on 2015-02-17. Retrieved 2015-05-03., accessed 2 May 2015.
- ^ Brooklyn Botanical Garden. "Weed of the Month: Pokeweed". www.bbg.org. Retrieved 23 September 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-292-74827-9. Retrieved 23 September 2017.
- OCLC 1083889360.
- ^ Nilsson et al. 1970. "Studies into the pigments in beetroot (Beta vulgaris L. ssp. vulgaris var. rubra L.)"
- PMID 22238657.
- ^ Doppelbauer, Martin (2008). "Tony Joe White – His Music". Archived from the original on May 3, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
- ^ White, Tony Joe (1969). "Polk Salad Annie [Lyrics]". New York, NY: Sony/ATV Music Publishing. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
- ^ a b APSFA, 2015, "Schedule of Events," at The Annual Poke Salad Festival Association, Annual Poke Salad Festival, Blanchard, Louisiana, at "Maranto". Archived from the original on 2015-03-25. Retrieved 2015-05-03., accessed 2 May 2015.
- ^ "Poke Sallet Festival ['Browngrass will join them ... ']". The Jackson County Sentinel (Online ed.). April 28, 2015. p. 4. Archived from the original on 2015-05-05. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
- ^ "Poke Sallet Festival Pageant". The Jackson County Sentinel (Online ed.). April 21, 2015. p. 3. Archived from the original on 2015-05-05. Retrieved May 2, 2015.
- ^ "Poke Sallet Festival". Facebook Events. Gainesboro, Tennessee. Retrieved May 2, 2015. "This year will mark the 37th Annual Poke Sallet Festival "The Oldest Poke Sallet Festival in the state of Tennessee" Come and join us on Thursday May 7th, Friday May 8th and Saturday May 9th 2015 In Historical Downtown Gainesboro. Look for details that will be featured in a 16 page insert in the April 28 issue of the Jackson County Sentinel."
- ^ "Harlan County Poke Sallet Festival – Home". Pokesalletfestival.xom. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
- ^ Milbauer, John A. "Wild Onion Dinners." Oklahoma History Center's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. (retrieved 2 March 2010)
Further reading and viewing
- P.A.G.M. De Smet, 1993, "Phytolacca americana," in Adverse Effects of Herbal Drugs, Volume 2 (Peter A. G. M. Smet, Konstantin Keller, Rudolf Hänsel, & R. Frank Chandler, Eds.), Berlin:Springer Science & Business Media, ISBN 3-642-48906-0
- ACS, 2008, "Entry: Pokeweed," at Find Support & Treatment; Treatments and Side Effects Complementary and Alternative Medicine; Herbs, Vitamins, and Minerals, see ACS Pokeweed entry Archived 2015-05-02 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 2 May 2015.
- Tyler, V. E.; Brady, L. R. & Robbers, J. E., 1988, "Poisonous plants," in Pharmacognosy, 9th ed. Philadelphia:Lea and Febiger, Chapter 15, pp. 438–455.
- Elvin-Lewis, Memory P. F.; Lewis, Walter Hepworth (2003). Medical Botany: Plants Affecting Human Health (2nd ed.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 82ff. ISBN 978-0-471-62882-8.
- "Tony Joe White – Polk Salad Annie," performance, date unknown, at Tony Joe White – Polk Salad Annie, accessed 2 May 2015.
- "Tony Joe White and Johnny Cash," performance, 1970, "Polk Salad (Poke Salit) Annie," from Johnny Cash Show, episode no. 27, April 8, 1970, at LiveLeak (online), see Tony Joe White & Johnny Cash-Polk Salad Annie, accessed 2 May 2015.
- Brennan Carley, 2014, "Foo Fighters Join Tony Joe White on Bluesy 'Polk Salad Annie' on 'Letterman'," Spin (online), October 16, 2014, see Foo Fighters Join Tony Joe White on Bluesy 'Polk Salad Annie' on 'Letterman', accessed 2 May 2015.
External links
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
- "Complete Pokeweed Information". Drugs.com professional.
- Ellingwood, Finley. "Phytolacca americana". The American Materia Medica, Therapeutics and Pharmacognosy.
- Felter. "Pokeweed" (PDF). Materia Medica.
- Kings American Dispensatory.
- "Phytolacca americana". Flora of North America.
- "Phytolacca americana". Hike Arizona.
- Kinneer, David & Burrows, Donna (October 30, 2013). "Pokeweed and Bluebirds". Native Brush & Shrubs. Weimar, Texas: Oakridge Ranch Wildlife Management Association. Archived from the original on February 12, 2016. Retrieved May 3, 2015. Image of bluebird feeding on pokeweed.