Wine

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This article is about the drink. For other uses, see Wine (disambiguation).

Wine
Glasses of red and white wine
TypeAlcoholic beverage
Alcohol by volume 5–16%[1]
IngredientsVaries; see Winemaking
Variants

Wine is an

alcoholic drink made from fermented fruit. Yeast consumes the sugar in the fruit and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Wine is most often made from grapes, and the term "wine" generally refers to grape wine when used without any qualification. Even so, wine can be made from a variety of fruit crops, including plum, cherry, pomegranate, blueberry, currant and elderberry
.

Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are major factors in different styles of wine. These differences result from the complex interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the grape's growing environment (terroir), and the wine production process. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine. These typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production.

Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of wine is from the present-day Georgia (6000 BCE), Persia (5000 BCE), Italy and Armenia (4000 BCE). New World wine has some connection to alcoholic beverages made by the indigenous peoples of the Americas, but is mainly connected to later Spanish traditions in New Spain.[2][3] Later, as Old World wine further developed viticulture techniques, Europe would encompass three of the largest wine-producing regions. Today, based on statistics gathered by the International Organisation of Vine and Wine (OIV) in 2022 the top five wine producing countries are Italy, France, Spain, the United States and Australia.[4]

Wine has long played an important role in religion.

Catholic friars and monks first produced wines in New Mexico and California.[6][7][8]

History

Georgian clay vessels, historically used in wine making.
The Areni-1 cave in Armenia is home to the world's oldest known winery.
Main article: History of wine

The earliest known traces of wine are from Georgia (c. 6000 BCE),[3][2] Iran (Persia) (c. 5000 BCE),[9][10] Armenia (c. 4100 BCE),[11] and Sicily (c. 4000 BCE).[12] Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace and Rome. Throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects.[13][14][15]

The earliest archaeological and archaeobotanical evidence for grape wine and viniculture, dating to 6000–5800 BCE was found on the territory of modern Georgia.[16][17] Both archaeological and genetic evidence suggest that the earliest production of wine outside of Georgia was relatively later, likely having taken place elsewhere in the Southern Caucasus (which encompasses Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan), or the West Asian region between Eastern Turkey, and northern Iran.[18][19] The earliest known winery from 4100 BCE is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia.[11][20]

A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with

hawthorn, cannot be ruled out.[21][22] If these drinks, which seem to be the precursors of rice wine, included grapes rather than other fruits, they would have been any of the several dozen indigenous wild species in China, rather than Vitis vinifera, which was introduced 6000 years later.[21][23][24][25][3]

In 2020, a 2,600-year-old well-preserved

Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence for this includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BCE, found with their cargoes of wine still intact, which were discovered by Robert Ballard[30] As the first great traders in wine (cherem), the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of olive oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin, similar to retsina
.

The earliest remains of Apadana Palace in Persepolis dating back to 515 BCE include carvings depicting soldiers from Achaemenid Empire subject nations bringing gifts to the Achaemenid king, among them Armenians bringing their famous wine.

Literary references to wine are abundant in

vintner. Five of these amphoras were designated as originating from the king's personal estate, with the sixth from the estate of the royal house of Aten.[31] Traces of wine have also been found in central Asian Xinjiang in modern-day China, dating from the second and first millennia BCE.[32]

Pressing wine
after the harvest; Tacuinum Sanitatis, 14th century

The first known mention of grape-based wines in India is from the late 4th-century BCE writings of Chanakya, the chief minister of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. In his writings, Chanakya condemns the use of alcohol while chronicling the emperor and his court's frequent indulgence of a style of wine known as madhu.[33]

The

bastardo wine.[37]

Later, the descendants of the sacramental wine were refined for a more palatable taste. This gave rise to modern

wine of the United States.[38][39][40] Viking sagas earlier mentioned a fantastic land filled with wild grapes and high-quality wine called precisely Vinland.[41] Prior to the Spanish establishing their American wine grape traditions in California and New Mexico, both France and Britain had unsuccessfully attempted to establish grapevines in Florida and Virginia respectively.[42]

In East Asia, the first modern wine industry was Japanese wine, developed in 1874 after grapevines were brought back from Europe.[43]

Etymology

Map showing the words for wine in European languages
This section contains Linear B Unicode characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Linear B.

The English word "wine" comes from the Proto-Germanic *winam, an early borrowing from the Latin vinum, Georgian ღვინო (ghvee-no), "wine", itself derived from the Proto-Indo-European stem *win-o- (cf. Armenian: գինի, gini; Ancient Greek: οἶνος oinos; Aeolic Greek: ϝοῖνος woinos; Hittite: wiyana; Lycian: oino).[44][45][46] The earliest attested terms referring to wine are the Mycenaean Greek 𐀕𐀶𐀺𐄀𐀚𐀺 me-tu-wo ne-wo (*μέθυϝος νέϝῳ),[47][48] meaning "in (the month)" or "(festival) of the new wine", and 𐀺𐀜𐀷𐀴𐀯 wo-no-wa-ti-si,[49] meaning "wine garden", written in Linear B inscriptions.[50][51][52][53] Linear B also includes, inter alia, an ideogram for wine, i.e. 𐂖.

The ultimate Indo-European origin of the word is the subject of some continued debate. Some scholars have noted the similarities between the words for wine in

Proto-Armenian *ɣʷeinyo-, whence Armenian gini.[61][62][63][64][55][verification needed] An alternate hypothesis by Fähnrich supposes *ɣwino-, a native Kartvelian word derived from the verbal root *ɣun- ('to bend').[65] See *ɣwino-
for more. All these theories place the origin of the word in the same geographical location, South Caucasus, that has been established based on archeological and biomolecular studies as the origin of viticulture.

Types of wine

Wine types:

The types have such different properties that in practice they are considered different drinks.

Styles

Wine is made in many ways from different fruits, with grapes being the most common.

From grapes

The type of grape used and the amount of skin contact while the juice is being extracted determines the color and general style of the wine. The color has no relation to a wine's sweetness—all may be made sweet or dry.

Types of wine from grapes
Long contact with grape skins Short contact with grape skins No contact with grape skins
Red grapes Red wine Rosé wine White wine
White grapes Orange wine

Red

Main article: Red wine

Red wine gains its color and flavor (notably,

teinturier
varieties, which actually have red flesh and produce red juice.

White

Main article: White wine

To make white wine, grapes are pressed quickly with the juice immediately drained away from the grape skins. The grapes used are typically

white grape varieties, though red grapes may be used if the winemaker is careful not to let the skin stain the wort during the separation of the pulp-juice. For example, pinot noir (a red grape) is commonly used in champagne
.

Dry (low sugar) white wine is the most common, derived from the complete fermentation of the juice, however sweet white wines such as Moscato d'Asti are also made.

Rosé

Main article:
Rosé wine

A rosé wine gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. It may be the oldest known type of wine, as it is the most straightforward to make with the skin contact method. The color can range from a pale orange to a vivid near-purple, depending on the varietals used and wine-making techniques.

There are three primary ways to produce rosé wine: Skin contact (allowing dark grape skins to stain the

Provençal rosé to sweet White Zinfandels and blushes. Rosé wines are made from a wide variety of grapes all over the world.[66][67]

Orange

Main article: Orange wine

Sometimes called amber wines, these are wines made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to

tannic, and usually made dry.[68]

Sparkling

Main article: Sparkling wine

These are effervescent wines, made in any of the above styles (ie, orange, red, rosé, white). They must undergo secondary fermentation to create carbon dioxide, which creates the bubbles.[69]

Two common methods of accomplishing this are the

Charmat method, used for Prosecco, Asti, and less expensive wines. A hybrid transfer method is also used, yielding intermediate results, and simple addition of carbon dioxide is used in the cheapest of wines.[70]

The bottles used for sparkling wine must be thick to withstand the pressure of the gas behind the

cork, which can be up to 6 standard atmospheres (88 psi).[71]

Dessert

Main article: Dessert wine

This refers to sweet wines that have a high level of sugar remaining after fermentation. There are various ways of increasing the amount of sugar in a wine, yielding products with different strengths and names. Icewine, Port, Sauternes, Tokaji Aszú, Trockenbeerenauslese, and Vin Santo are some examples.

From other fruits and foods

Fruit

Main article: Fruit wine

elderberry wine) and are generically called fruit wine or country wine (similar to French term vin de pays). Other than the grape varieties traditionally used for wine-making, most fruits naturally lack either sufficient fermentable sugars, proper amount of acidity, yeast amounts needed to promote or maintain fermentation, or a combination of these three materials. This is probably one of the main reasons why wine derived from grapes has historically been more prevalent by far than other types, and why specific types of fruit wines have generally been confined to the regions in which the fruits were native or introduced for other reasons.[citation needed
]

Honey

Main article: Mead

Mead, also called honey wine, is created by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains, or hops. As long as the primary substance fermented is honey, the drink is considered mead.[72] Mead was produced in ancient history throughout Europe, Africa and Asia,[73] and was known in Europe before grape wine.[74]

Starch

Other drinks called "wine", such as

cheongju), are made from starch-based materials and resemble beer more than traditional wine, while ginger wine is fortified with brandy. In these latter cases, the term "wine" refers to the similarity in alcohol content rather than to the production process.[75] The commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.[76]

Grape varieties

Grape vineyard
Main article: List of grape varieties

Wine is usually made from one or more

varieties of the European species Vitis vinifera, such as Pinot noir, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Gamay and Merlot. When one of these varieties is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as minimums of 75% to 85%), the result is a "varietal" as opposed to a "blended" wine. Blended wines are not necessarily inferior to varietal wines, rather they are a different style of wine-making.[77]

Wine can also be made from other species of grape or from

genetic crossing of two species. V. labrusca (of which the Concord grape is a cultivar), V. aestivalis, V. rupestris, V. rotundifolia and V. riparia are native North American
grapes usually grown to eat fresh or for grape juice, jam, or jelly, and only occasionally made into wine.

Hybridization is different from grafting. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European Vitis vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North American species' rootstock, a common practice due to their resistance to phylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine. In the late 19th century, most of Europe's vineyards (excluding some of the driest in the south) were devastated by the infestation, leading to widespread vine deaths and eventual replanting. Grafting is done in every wine-producing region in the world except in Argentina and the Canary Islands – the only places not yet exposed to the insect.[78]

In the context of wine production,

micro-oxygenation
, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin-film evaporation, and spinning cones.[81]

About 700 grapes go into one bottle of wine, approximately 2.6 pounds.[82]

Classification

Main article: Classification of wine
Wine grapes on a vine

Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions of the world. European wines tend to be classified by region (e.g.

Okanagan Valley of British Columbia, and the Niagara Peninsula and Essex County regions of Ontario
are the three largest producers.

Some blended wine names are marketing terms whose use is governed by trademark law rather than by specific wine laws. For example, Meritage is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, but may also include Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, and Malbec. Commercial use of the term Meritage is allowed only via licensing agreements with the Meritage Association.

European classifications

Italian Moscato d'Asti, a DOCG wine

France has various

Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) or similar, depending on the region.[83][84] Portugal has developed a system resembling that of France and, in fact, pioneered this concept in 1756 with a royal charter creating the Demarcated Douro Region and regulating the production and trade of wine.[85] Germany created a similar scheme in 2002, although it has not yet achieved the authority of the other countries' classification systems.[86][87] Spain, Greece and Italy have classifications based on a dual system of region of origin and product quality.[88]

Beyond Europe

New World wines—those made outside the traditional wine regions of Europe—are usually classified by grape rather than by terroir or region of origin, although there have been unofficial attempts to classify them by quality.[89][90][needs update
]

According to Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, wine in Canada is an alcoholic drink that is produced by the complete or partial alcoholic fermentation of fresh grapes, grape must, products derived solely from fresh grapes, or any combination of them. There are many materials added during the course of the manufacture, such as yeast, concentrated grape juice,

sulphurous acid, including salts thereof, in such quantity that its content in the finished wine shall not exceed 70 parts per million in the free state, or 350 parts per million in the combined state, calculated as sulphur dioxide. Caramel, amylase and pectinase at a maximum level of use consistent with good manufacturing practice. Brandy, fruit spirit or alcohol derived from the alcoholic fermentation of a food source distilled to not less than 94 percent alcohol by volume.[clarification needed] Prior to final filtration may be treated with a strongly acid cation exchange resin in the sodium ion form, or a weakly basic anion exchange resin in the hydroxyl ion form.[91]

Vintages

Main article: Vintage
Vintage French Champagne

In the United States, for a wine to be vintage-dated and labeled with a country of origin or American Viticultural Area (AVA; e.g., Sonoma Valley), 95% of its volume must be from grapes harvested in that year.[92] If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA the percentage requirement is lowered to 85%.[92]

Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will have a similar taste. Climate's impact on the character of a wine can be significant enough to cause different vintages from the same vineyard to vary dramatically in flavor and quality.[93] Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the particular vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages from reputable producers and regions will often command much higher prices than their average ones. Some vintage wines (e.g. Brunello), are only made in better-than-average years.

For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage, which helps wine-makers sustain a reliable market image and maintain sales even in bad years.[94][95] One recent study suggests that for the average wine drinker, the vintage year may not be as significant for perceived quality as had been thought, although wine connoisseurs continue to place great importance on it.[96]

Tasting

Judging color is the first step in tasting a wine.
Main article: Wine tasting
See also: Wine tasting descriptors

Dry wine, for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar. Some wine labels suggest opening the bottle and letting the wine "breathe" for a couple of hours before serving, while others recommend drinking it immediately. Decanting (the act of pouring a wine into a special container just for breathing) is a controversial subject among wine enthusiasts. In addition to aeration, decanting with a filter allows the removal of bitter sediments that may have formed in the wine. Sediment is more common in older bottles, but aeration may benefit younger wines.[97]

During aeration, a younger wine's exposure to air often "relaxes" the drink, making it smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older wines generally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration.

better source needed] When tasting wine, individual flavors may also be detected, due to the complex mix of organic molecules (e.g. esters and terpenes) that grape juice and wine can contain. Experienced tasters can distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape and flavors that result from other factors in wine-making. Typical intentional flavor elements in wine—chocolate, vanilla, or coffee—are those imparted by aging in oak casks rather than the grape itself.[100]

4-ethylguaiacol),[101] and rotten egg (hydrogen sulfide).[102] Some varieties can also exhibit a mineral flavor due to the presence of water-soluble salts as a result of limestone's presence in the vineyard's soil. Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds released into the air.[103] Vaporization of these compounds can be accelerated by twirling the wine glass or serving at room temperature. Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are already highly aromatic, like Chinon and Beaujolais.[104]

The ideal temperature for serving a particular wine is a matter of debate by wine enthusiasts and sommeliers, but some broad guidelines have emerged that will generally enhance the experience of tasting certain common wines. White wine should foster a sense of coolness, achieved by serving at "cellar temperature" (13 °C or 55 °F). Light red wines drunk young should also be brought to the table at this temperature, where they will quickly rise a few degrees. Red wines are generally perceived best when served chambré ("at room temperature"). However, this does not mean the temperature of the dining room—often around 21 °C (70 °F)—but rather the coolest room in the house and, therefore, always slightly cooler than the dining room itself. Pinot noir should be brought to the table for serving at 16 °C (61 °F) and will reach its full bouquet at 18 °C (64 °F). Cabernet Sauvignon, zinfandel, and Rhone varieties should be served at 18 °C (64 °F) and allowed to warm on the table to 21 °C (70 °F) for best aroma.[105]

Collecting

See also: Aging of wine, Investment wine, and Storage of wine
Château Margaux, a First Growth from the Bordeaux region of France, is highly collectible.

Outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of dollars per bottle, though the broader term "fine wine" covers those typically retailing in excess of US$30–50.[106] "Investment wines" are considered by some to be Veblen goods: those for which demand increases rather than decreases as their prices rise. Particular selections such as "Verticals", which span multiple vintages of a specific grape and vineyard, may be highly valued. The most notable was a Château d'Yquem 135-year vertical containing every vintage from 1860 to 2003 sold for $1.5 million. The most common wines purchased for investment include those from Bordeaux and Burgundy; cult wines from Europe and elsewhere; and vintage port. Characteristics of highly collectible wines include:

  1. A proven track record of holding well over time
  2. A drinking-window plateau (i.e., the period for maturity and approachability) that is many years long
  3. A consensus among experts as to the quality of the wines
  4. Rigorous production methods at every stage, including grape selection and appropriate barrel aging

Investment in fine wine has attracted those who take advantage of their victims' relative ignorance of this wine market sector.

economic cycles
. As with any investment, thorough research is essential to making an informed decision.

Production

Main article: Winemaking
See also:
List of wine-producing countries and List of wine-producing regions
Grapes fermenting to make wine in Western Australia
2014 wine production estimates[108]
Rank Country
(with link to wine article)		 Production
(
tonnes
)
1 Italy Italy 4,796,600
2 Spain Spain 4,607,850
3 France France 4,293,466
4 United States United States 3,300,000
5 China China 1,700,000
6 Argentina Argentina 1,498,380
7 Chile Chile 1,214,000
8 Australia Australia 1,186,343
9 South Africa South Africa 1,146,006
10 Germany Germany 920,200
World* 30,806,000

* May include official, semi-official or estimated data.

Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator. The world's southernmost vineyards are in the Central Otago region of New Zealand's South Island near the 45th parallel south,[109] and the northernmost are in Flen, Sweden, just north of the 59th parallel north.[110]

Exporting countries

The UK was the world's largest importer of wine in 2007.[113]

Consumption

"Drink wine" redirects here. For the Adele song, see I Drink Wine.
Wine consumption per person, 2014[114]
Wine as a share of total alcohol consumption, 2010[115]

Wine-consumption data from a

list of countries by alcohol consumption measured in liters of pure ethyl alcohol consumed per capita in a given year, according to the most recent data from the World Health Organization. The methodology includes persons 15 years of age or older.[116] About 40% of individuals above the legal drinking age consider themselves "wine drinkers", which is higher than all other alcoholic beverages combined (34%) and those who do not drink at all (26%).[117]

Culinary uses

Further information: Wine and food pairing
Reduction of red wine for a sauce by cooking it on a stovetop. It is called a reduction because the heat boils off some of the water, leaving a more concentrated, wine-flavoured sauce.

Wine is a popular and important

North Savonia, Finland is known for its annual Kuopio Wine Festivals (Kuopion viinijuhlat).[118]

Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a drink, but as a flavor agent, primarily in

sweet dishes.[119] Wine sauce is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient.[120] Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% ABV, with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range.[121] Fortified wines
(usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.

Religious significance

See also: Religion and alcohol and Wine in religious communities of the Middle East

Ancient religions

The use of wine in ancient

Ancient Egyptian religious ceremonies was common. Libations often included wine, and the religious mysteries of Dionysus used wine as a sacramental entheogen
to induce a mind-altering state.

Judaism

Main article: Kosher wine

Baruch atah Hashem (Ado-nai) Eloheinu melech ha-olam, boray p'ree hagafen – Praised be the Lord, our God, King of the universe, Creator of the fruit of the vine.

— The blessing over wine said before consuming the drink.

Wine is an integral part of

Tabernacle and in the Temple in Jerusalem, the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service.[123] Note that this does not mean that wine is a symbol of blood, a common misconception that contributes to the Christian beliefs of the blood libel
. "It has been one of history's cruel ironies that the blood libel—accusations against Jews using the blood of murdered gentile children for the making of wine and matzot—became the false pretext for numerous
halachically exempted from using red wine, lest it be seized as "evidence" against them."[124]

Christianity

Eucharistic theologies contrasted
).

While some Christians consider the use of wine from the grape as essential for the validity of the

Protestant denominations as to whether wine can and should be used for the Eucharist or allowed as an ordinary drink, with Catholics and some mainline Protestants allowing wine drinking in moderation, and some conservative Protestant groups opposing consumption of alcohol altogether.[citation needed
]

The earliest viticulture tradition in the Southwestern United States starts with sacramental wine, beginning in the 1600s, with Christian friars and monks producing New Mexico wine.[126]

Islam

All alcohol is prohibited under Islamic law, although there has been a long tradition of drinking wine in some Islamic areas, especially in Iran.
Main article:
Islam and alcohol

Alcoholic drinks, including wine, are forbidden under most interpretations of

Alevi sects – one of the two main branches of Islam in Turkey (the other being Sunni Islam) – use wine in their religious services.[citation needed
]

Certain exceptions to the ban on alcohol apply. Alcohol derived from a source other than the grape (or its byproducts) and the date

Hanafi madhab, for specific purposes (such as medicines), where the goal is not intoxication. However, modern Hanafi scholars regard alcohol consumption as totally forbidden.[130]

Packaging

See also:
Closure (bottle), Alternative wine closure, Wine bottle, Box wine, Canned wine, and Screw cap (wine)
Assorted wine corks

Most wines are sold in glass bottles and sealed with corks (50% of which come from Portugal).[131] An increasing number of wine producers have been using alternative closures such as screwcaps and synthetic plastic "corks". Although alternative closures are less expensive and prevent cork taint, they have been blamed for such problems as excessive reduction.[132]

Some wines are packaged in thick plastic bags within

oxidizes more rapidly after opening because of the increasing ratio of air to wine as the contents are dispensed; it can degrade considerably in a few days. Canned wine is one of the fastest-growing forms of alternative wine packaging on the market.[133]

Environmental considerations of wine packaging reveal the benefits and drawbacks of both bottled and box wines. The glass used to make bottles is a nontoxic, naturally occurring substance that is completely recyclable, whereas the plastics used for box-wine containers are typically much less environmentally friendly. However, wine-bottle manufacturers have been cited for Clean Air Act violations. A New York Times editorial suggested that box wine, being lighter in package weight, has a reduced carbon footprint from its distribution; however, box-wine plastics, even though possibly recyclable, can be more labor-intensive (and therefore expensive) to process than glass bottles. In addition, while a wine box is recyclable, its plastic bladder most likely is not.[134] Some people are drawn to canned wine due to its portability and recyclable packaging.[133]

Some wine is sold in stainless steel kegs and is referred to as wine on tap.

Storage

Main article: Storage of wine
wine barrels

Wine cellars, or wine rooms, if they are above-ground, are places designed specifically for the storage and aging of wine. Fine restaurants and some private homes have wine cellars. In an active wine cellar, temperature and humidity are maintained by a climate-control system. Passive wine cellars are not climate-controlled, and so must be carefully located. Because wine is a natural, perishable food product, all types—including red, white, sparkling, and fortified—can spoil when exposed to heat, light, vibration or fluctuations in temperature and humidity. When properly stored, wines can maintain their quality and in some cases improve in aroma, flavor, and complexity as they age. Some wine experts contend that the optimal temperature for aging wine is 13 °C (55 °F),[135] others 15 °C (59 °F).[136]

Wine refrigerators offer a smaller alternative to wine cellars and are available in capacities ranging from small, 16-bottle units to furniture-quality pieces that can contain 500 bottles. Wine refrigerators are not ideal for aging, but rather serve to chill wine to the proper temperature for drinking. These refrigerators keep the humidity low (usually under 50%), below the optimal humidity of 50% to 70%. Lower humidity levels can dry out corks over time, allowing oxygen to enter the bottle, which reduces the wine's quality through oxidation.[137] While some types of alcohol are sometimes stored in the freezer, such as vodka, it is not possible to safely freeze wine in the bottle, as there is insufficient room for it to expand as it freezes and the bottle will usually crack. Certain shapes of bottle may allow the cork to be pushed out by the ice, but if the bottle is frozen on its side, the wine in the narrower neck will invariably freeze first, preventing this.

Professions

There are a large number of occupations and professions that are part of the wine industry, ranging from the individuals who grow the grapes, prepare the wine, bottle it, sell it, assess it, market it and finally make recommendations to clients and serve the wine.

Related professions
Name Description
Cellar master A person in charge of a wine cellar
Cooper A craftsperson of wooden barrels and casks. A cooperage is a facility that produces such casks
Négociant
 A wine merchant who purchases the product of smaller growers or wine-makers to sell them under its own name
Oenologist
 A wine scientist or wine chemist; a student of oenology. In the 2000s, BSc degrees in oenology and viticulture are available. A wine-maker may be trained as an oenologist, but often hires one as a consultant
Sommelier Also called a "wine steward", this is a specialist wine expert in charge of developing a restaurant's wine list, educating the staff about wine, and assisting customers with their selections (especially food–wine pairings)
Vintner
or winemaker 		A wine producer; a person who makes wine
Viticulturist
 A specialist in the science of grapevines; a manager of vineyard pruning,
irrigation
, and pest control
Wine critic A wine expert and journalist who tastes and reviews wines for books and magazines
Wine taster
 A wine expert who tastes wines to ascertain their quality and flavour
Wine waiter A restaurant or wine bar server with a basic- to mid-level knowledge of wine and food–wine pairings

Forgery and manipulation

Main article: Wine fraud
See also: List of food contamination incidents

Incidents of fraud, such as mislabeling the origin or quality of wines, have resulted in regulations on labeling. "Wine scandals" that have received media attention include:

Health effects

See also: Health effects of wine
Further information: Red wine headache
Red table wine
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy355 kJ (85 kcal)
2.6 g
Sugars0.6 g
0.0 g
0.1 g
Other constituentsQuantity
Alcohol (ethanol)10.6 g
10.6 g alcohol is 13%vol.
100 g wine is approximately 100 ml (3.4 fl oz.)
Sugar and alcohol content can vary.

Short-term

Main article: Short-term effects of alcohol consumption

Wine contains

drinking and driving. The social context and quality of wine can affect the mood and emotions.[143]

Long-term

See also:
Long-term effects of alcohol consumption
long-term effects of ethanol, one of the constituents of wine. Consumption of alcohol by pregnant mothers may result in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
.

The main active ingredient of wine is ethanol. A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found that moderate ethanol consumption brought no mortality benefit compared with lifetime abstention from ethanol consumption.

high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. Some studies that reported benefits of moderate ethanol consumption erred by lumping former drinkers and life-long abstainers into a single group of nondrinkers, hiding the health benefits of life-long abstention from ethanol.[146] Risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents.[146] About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) annually are due to ethanol use.[147][148][149]

Alcohol use disorder is the inability to stop or control alcohol use despite harmful consequences to health, job, or relationships; alternative terms include alcoholism, alcohol abuse, alcohol dependence, or alcohol addiction.[150][151][152][153][154] and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States.[146] No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine.[146][155]

Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause

liver cirrhosis and alcoholism.[156] The American Heart Association "cautions people NOT to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation."[157]

Although red wine contains more of the

fermentation. White wine generally contains lower levels of the chemical as it has minimal contact with grape skins during this process.[161]

See also

References

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Further reading

External links
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