Quotation marks in English
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Double typographic quotes | |||||||
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In
Quotation marks are written as a pair of opening and closing marks in either of two styles: single (‘...’) or double (“...”). Opening and closing quotation marks may be identical in form (called neutral, vertical, straight, typewriter, or "
The typographic closing double quotation mark and the neutral double quotation mark are similar to – and sometimes stand in for – the
History
In the first centuries of typesetting, quotations were distinguished merely by indicating the speaker, and this can still be seen in some editions of the Christian Bible. During the Renaissance, quotations were distinguished by setting in a typeface contrasting with the main body text (often italic type with roman, or the other way around). Long quotations were also set this way, at full size and full measure.[8]
Quotation marks were first cut in metal type during the middle of the sixteenth century, and were used copiously by some printers by the seventeenth. In some
In Early Modern English, quotation marks were used to denote pithy comments. They were used to quote direct speech as early as the late sixteenth century, and this practice became more common over time.[9][10]
Usage
Quotations and speech
Single or double quotation marks denote either speech or a quotation. Double quotes are preferred in the United States, and also tend to be preferred in Australia[11][12] (though the Australian Government prefers single quotes)[13] and Canada. Single quotes are more usual in the United Kingdom, Ireland and South Africa, though double quotes are also common there, especially in journalistic works[clarification needed].[14][15] In New Zealand, both styles are used.[16][17]
A publisher's or author's style may take precedence over regional general preferences. The important idea is that the style of opening and closing quotation marks must be matched:
'Good morning, Frank,' said Hal.
"Good morning, Frank," said Hal.
For speech within speech, the other style is used as inner quotation marks:
'Hal said, "Good morning, Dave,"' recalled Frank.
"Hal said, 'Good morning, Dave,'" recalled Frank.
Sometimes quotations are nested in more levels than inner and outer quotation. Nesting levels up to five can be found in the Christian Bible.[18] In these cases, questions arise about the form (and names) of the quotation marks to be used. The most common way is to simply alternate between the two forms,[19] thus:
If such a passage is further quoted in another publication, then all of their forms have to be shifted up by one level.
In many cases, quotations that span multiple paragraphs are set as block quotations, and thus do not require quotation marks. However, quotation marks are used for multiple-paragraph quotations in some cases, especially in narratives, where the convention in English is to give opening quotation marks to the first and each subsequent paragraph, using closing quotation marks only for the final paragraph of the quotation, as in the following example from Pride and Prejudice:
The letter was to this effect:
"My dear Lizzy,
"I wish you joy. If you love Mr. Darcy half as well as I do my dear Wickham, you must be very happy. It is a great comfort to have you so rich, and when you have nothing else to do, I hope you will think of us. I am sure Wickham would like a place at court very much, and I do not think we shall have quite money enough to live upon without some help. Any place would do, of about three or four hundred a year; but however, do not speak to Mr. Darcy about it, if you had rather not.
"Yours, etc."
As noted above, in some older texts, the quotation mark is repeated every line, rather than every paragraph.
When quoted text is interrupted, such as with the phrase he said, a closing quotation mark is used before the interruption, and an opening quotation mark after. Commas are also often used before and after the interruption, more often for quotations of speech than for quotations of text:
Quotation marks are not used for indirect speech. This is because indirect speech can be a paraphrase; it is not a direct quote, and in the course of any composition, it is important to document when one is using a quotation versus when one is just giving content, which may be paraphrased, and which could be open to interpretation.
For example, if Hal says: "All systems are functional", then, in indirect speech:
Incorrect: Hal said that "everything was going extremely well".
Correct: Hal said that everything was going extremely well.
Irony
Another common use of quotation marks is to indicate or call attention to ironic, dubious, or non-standard words:
He shared his "wisdom" with me.
The lunch lady plopped a glob of "food" onto my tray.
He complained about too many "gummint" regulations.
Quotes indicating verbal irony, or other special use, are sometimes called scare quotes. They are sometimes gestured in oral speech using air quotes, or indicated in speech with a tone change or by replacement with supposed[ly] or so-called.
Signalling unusual usage
Quotation marks are also used to indicate that the writer realises that a word is not being used in its current commonly accepted sense:
In addition to conveying a neutral attitude and to call attention to a neologism, or slang, or special terminology (also known as jargon), quoting can also indicate words or phrases that are descriptive but unusual, colloquial, folksy, startling, humorous, metaphoric, or contain a pun: Dawkins's concept of a meme could be described as an "evolving idea".
People also use quotation marks in this way to distance the writer from the terminology in question so as not to be associated with it, for example to indicate that a quoted word is not official terminology, or that a quoted phrase presupposes things that the author does not necessarily agree with; or to indicate special terminology that should be identified for accuracy's sake as someone else's terminology, as when a term (particularly a controversial term) pre-dates the writer or represents the views of someone else, perhaps without judgement (contrast this neutrally distancing quoting to the negative use of scare quotes).
The Chicago Manual of Style, 17th edition (2017),[20] acknowledges this type of use but, in section 7.57, cautions against its overuse: "Quotation marks are often used to alert readers that a term is used in a nonstandard (or slang), ironic, or other special sense .... [T]hey imply 'This is not my term,' or 'This is not how the term is usually applied.' Like any such device, scare quotes lose their force and irritate readers if overused."
Use–mention distinction
Either quotation marks or italic type can emphasise that an instance of a word refers to the word itself rather than its associated concept.
Cheese is derived from milk. (concept)
"Cheese" is derived from a word in Old English. (word)
Cheese has calcium, protein, and phosphorus. (concept)
Cheese has three Es. (word)
In linguistics
Precise writing about language often uses italics for
Latin ovis 'sheep', canis 'dog', and equus 'horse' are nouns.
Titles of artistic works
Quotation marks, rather than italics, are generally used for the titles of shorter works. Whether these are single or double depends on the context; however, many styles, especially for poetry, prefer the use of single quotation marks.
- Short fiction, poetry, etc.: Arthur C. Clarke's "The Sentinel"
- Book chapters: The first chapter of 3001: The Final Odyssey is "Comet Cowboy"
- Articles in books, magazines, journals, etc.: "Extra-Terrestrial Relays", Wireless World, October 1945
- Album tracks, singles, etc.: David Bowie's "Space Oddity"
As a rule, the title of a whole publication is
Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet
Dahl's short story "Taste" in Completely Unexpected Tales
Nicknames and false titles
Quotation marks can also set off a
Nonstandard usage
Quotes are sometimes used for emphasis in lieu of underlining or italics, most commonly on signs or placards. This usage can be confused with ironic or altered-usage quotation, sometimes with unintended humor. For example, For sale: "fresh" fish, "fresh" oysters, could be construed to imply that fresh is not used with its everyday meaning, or indeed to indicate that the fish or oysters are anything but fresh. As another example, Cashiers' desks open until noon for your "convenience" could be interpreted to mean that the convenience was for the bank employees, not the customers.[5]
Order of punctuation
With regard to quotation marks adjacent to periods and commas, there are two styles of punctuation in widespread use. These two styles are most commonly referred to as "American" and "British", or sometimes "typesetters' quotation" and "logical quotation". Both systems have the same rules regarding question marks, exclamation points, colons, and semicolons. However, they differ in the treatment of periods and commas.[23][24]
In all major forms of English, question marks, exclamation marks, semicolons, and any other punctuation (with the possible exceptions of periods and commas, as explained in the sections below) are placed inside or outside the closing quotation mark depending on whether they are part of the quoted material.[25]
Did he say, "Good morning, Dave"?
No, he said, "Where are you, Dave?"
There are three major definitions of the word "gender": vernacular, sociological, and linguistic.
Type "C:" at the DOS prompt to switch from a floppy disk to a hard drive.
A convention is the use of square brackets to indicate content between the quotation marks that has been modified from, or was not present in, the original material.
British style
The prevailing style in the United Kingdom – called British style,[23][25] logical quotation,[26] and logical punctuation[27] – is to include within quotation marks only those punctuation marks that appeared in the original quoted material and in which the punctuation mark fits with the sense of the quotation, but otherwise to place punctuation outside the closing quotation marks.[27] Fowler's A Dictionary of Modern English Usage provides an early example of the rule: "All signs of punctuation used with words in quotation marks must be placed according to the sense."[28]
When dealing with words-as-words, short-form works and sentence fragments, this style places periods and commas outside the quotation marks:
"Carefree", in general, means "free from care or anxiety".
The title of the song was "Gloria", which many already knew.
She said she felt "free from care and anxiety".
When dealing with direct speech, according to the British style guide Butcher's Copy-editing, if a quotation is broken by words of the main sentence, and then resumed, the punctuation before the break should follow the closing quote unless it forms part of the quotation. An exception may be made when writing fiction, where the first comma may be placed before the first closing quote.[29] In non-fiction, some British publishers may permit placing punctuation that is not part of the person's speech inside the quotation marks but prefer that it be placed outside.[29] Periods and commas that are part of the person's speech are permitted inside the quotation marks regardless of whether the material is fiction.[29]
"Today," said Cinderella, "I feel free from care and anxiety." (fiction)
"Today", said the Prime Minister, "I feel free from care and anxiety." (preferred in non-fiction)
"Today I feel happy," said the woman, "carefree, and well." (regardless)
According to the
Some American style guides specific to certain specialties also prefer the British style.[24] For example, the journal Language of the Linguistic Society of America requires that the closing quotation mark precede the period or comma unless that period or comma is "a necessary part of the quoted matter".[22] The websites Wikipedia and Pitchfork use logical punctuation.[27]
American style
In the United States, the prevailing style is called American style,[25] whereby commas and periods are almost always placed inside closing quotation marks.[31][32][33][34][35] The American style is used by most newspapers, publishing houses, and style guides in the United States and, to a lesser extent, Canada as well.
When dealing with words-as-words, short-form works, and sentence fragments, standard American style places periods and commas inside the quotation marks:
"Carefree," in general, means "free from care or anxiety."
The title of the song was "Gloria," which many already knew.
She said she felt "free from care and anxiety."
This style also places periods and commas inside the quotation marks when dealing with direct speech, regardless of whether the work is fiction or non-fiction:
"Today," said Cinderella, "I feel free from care and anxiety." (fiction)
"Today," said the Prime Minister, "I feel free from care and anxiety." (non-fiction)
Nevertheless, many American style guides explicitly permit periods and commas outside the quotation marks when the presence of the punctuation mark inside the quotation marks leads to ambiguity, such as when describing keyboard input, as in the following example:
end.
", including the period, signifies the end of a program.The American style is recommended by the Modern Language Association's
Ending the sentence
In both major styles, regardless of placement, only one end mark (?, !, or .) can end a sentence. Only the period, however, may not end a quoted sentence when it does not also end the enclosing sentence, except for literal text:[24][38][39]
"Hello, world," she said. (both styles)
She said, "Hello, world." (both styles)
"Hello, world!" she exclaimed. (both styles)
"Is anybody out there?" she asked into the void. (both styles)
With narration of direct speech, both styles retain punctuation inside the quotation marks, with a full stop changing into a comma if followed by attributive matter, also known as a speech tag or annunciatory clause. Americans tend to apply quotations when signifying doubt of veracity (sarcastically or seriously), to imply another meaning to a word or to imply a cynical take on a paraphrased quotation, without punctuation at all.
Typographical considerations
Primary quotations versus secondary quotations
Primary quotations are orthographically distinguished from secondary quotations that may be nested within a primary quotation. British English often uses single quotation marks to identify the outermost text of a primary quotation versus double quotation marks for inner, nested quotations. By contrast, American English typically uses double quotation marks to identify the outermost text of a primary quotation versus single quotation marks for inner, nested quotations.
British usage does vary, with some authoritative sources such as The Economist and The Times recommending the same usage as in the US,[40] whereas other authoritative sources, such as The King's English, Fowler's, and New Hart's Rules, recommend single quotation marks.[41] In journals and newspapers, quotation mark double/single use often depends on the individual publication's house style.
Spacing
In English, when a quotation follows other writing on a line of text, a space precedes the opening quotation mark unless the preceding symbol, such as an
There is generally no space between an opening quotation mark and the following word, or a closing quotation mark and the preceding word. When a double quotation mark or a single quotation mark immediately follows the other, proper spacing for legibility may suggest that a thin space ( 
) or larger non-breaking space (
) be inserted.
So Dave actually said, "He said, 'Good morning' "? (thin-space)
Yes, he did say, "He said, 'Good morning.' " (non-breaking space)
This is not common practice in mainstream publishing, which will generally use more precise
Straight quotation marks (or italicised straight quotation marks) are often used to
′
and ″
, respectively.
Double quotation marks, or pairs of single ones, also represent the ditto mark.
Straight single and double quotation marks are used in most programming languages to delimit strings or literal characters, collectively known as string literals. In some languages (e.g. Pascal) only one type is allowed, in some (e.g. C and its derivatives) both are used with different meanings and in others (e.g. Python) both are used interchangeably. In some languages, if it is desired to include the same quotation marks used to delimit a string inside the string, the quotation marks are doubled. For example, to represent the string eat 'hot' dogs in Pascal one uses 'eat ''hot'' dogs'
. Other languages use an escape character, often the backslash, as in 'eat \'hot\' dogs'
.
In the TeX typesetting program, left double quotes are produced by typing two back-ticks (``
) and right double quotes by typing two apostrophes (''
). This is a continuation of a typewriter tradition of using ticks for opening quotation marks; see Quotation mark § Typewriters and early computers.
Typing quotation marks on a computer keyboard
Standard English computer keyboard layouts inherited the single and double straight quotation marks from the typewriter (the single quotation mark also doubling as an apostrophe), and they do not include individual keys for left-handed and right-handed typographic quotation marks. In character encoding terms, these characters are labeled unidirectional. However, most computer text-editing programs provide a "smart quotes" feature to automatically convert straight quotation marks into bidirectional punctuation, though sometimes imperfectly . Generally, this smart quote feature is enabled by default, and it can be turned off in an "options" or "preferences" dialog. Some websites do not allow typographic quotation marks or apostrophes in posts. One can skirt these limitations, however, by using the HTML character codes or entities[42] or the other key combinations in the following table. In Windows, AutoHotkey scripts can be used to assign simpler key combinations to opening and closing quotation marks.
Windows Alt code combinations | macOS key combinations | Linux (X) keys | Unicode point | HTML entity
|
HTML decimal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Single opening | ‘ | Alt+0145 (on number pad) | ⌥ Opt+] | Compose+<+' or Alt Gr+⇧ Shift+V | U+2018 | ‘
|
‘
|
Single closing (& apostrophe[43][44]) |
’ | Alt+0146 (on number pad) | ⌥ Opt+⇧ Shift+] | Compose+>+' or Alt Gr+⇧ Shift+B | U+2019 | ’
|
’
|
Double opening | “ | Alt+0147 (on number pad) | ⌥ Opt+[ | Compose+<+" or Alt Gr+v | U+201C | “
|
“
|
Double closing | ” | Alt+0148 (on number pad) | ⌥ Opt+⇧ Shift+[ | Compose+>+" or Alt Gr+b | U+201D | ”
|
”
|
Smart quotes
To make typographic quotation marks easier to enter, publishing software often automatically converts typewriter quotation marks (and apostrophes) to typographic form during text entry (with or without the user being aware of it). Out-of-the-box behavior on macOS and iOS is to make this conversion. These are known as smart quotes (“...”). Straight quotation marks are also retronymically called dumb quotes ("...").[45]
The method for producing smart quotes may be based solely on the character preceding the mark. If it is a space or another of a set of
Text as typed | Desired result | Example erroneous results |
---|---|---|
'14 | ’14 | ‘14 |
I forgot my 'phone. | I forgot my ’phone. | I forgot my ‘phone. |
'Twas the night before Christmas ...[46] | ’ Twas the night before Christmas ... | ‘ Twas the night before Christmas ... |
"'Hello,' he said, 'to you'" | “ ‘Hello,’ he said, ‘to you’ ” |
|
In Windows, if it is necessary to follow a space with a closing quotation mark when Smart Quotes is in effect, it is usually sufficient to input the character using the Alt code shown above rather than typing " or '.
See also
- Guillemet, the French quotation mark
- International variation in quotation marks
- Modifier letter double apostrophe
- ʻOkina
- Typewriter conventions
- Western Latin character sets (computing)
References
- ISBN 0439205794.
- ISBN 978-1107624702.
- ISBN 0-19-541816-6.
- ISBN 978-0-19-966135-0.
- ^ a b Zwicky, Arnold (29 January 2006). "Dubious Quotation Marks". itre.cis.upenn.edu. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
- ^ "Smart" apostrophes The Chicago Manual of Style Online (17th ed.). Part 2, Chapter 6.117. Retrieved 3 January 2019. Subscription required (free trial available).
- ^ Chagnon, Bevi (December 2013). "Fonts, Typography, and Accessibility". Retrieved 3 January 2019.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-88179-132-7.
- ^ Higgins, John (1587). The Mirror for Magistrates.
- ISBN 1-59240-087-6.
- ^ https://davidbrewsterwriter.com/blog/2014/8/19/quote-me-on-this-using-single-and-double-quotation-marks?format=amp
- ^ https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/resources/view/resource/6/
- ^ Australian Government (24 October 2022). "Quotation marks". Australian Government Style Manual. Archived from the original on 23 March 2023. Retrieved 1 May 2023.
- ISBN 9780140513660.
- OCLC 73994040.
- ^ https://www.clearlingo.co.nz/blog/new-zealand-english-single-or-double-quote-marks
- ^ https://www.digital.govt.nz/standards-and-guidance/design-and-ux/content-design-guidance/grammar-and-punctuation/
- ^ Jeremiah 27:1–11; 29:1–28; 29:30–32; 34:1–5; Ezekiel 27:1–36
- ISBN 978-0-89879-776-3.
- ^ "The Chicago Manual of Style Online" (17th ed.). University of Chicago Press. 2017. Section 7.57. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
- ^ "Style Sheet", Language Acquisition: A Journal of Developmental Linguistics, (undated), p. 2
- ^ a b "Language Style Sheet" (PDF). Language. Washington, DC: Linguistic Society of America. 2015. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
4. Punctuation: a. ... The second member of a pair of quotation marks should precede any other adjacent mark of punctuation, unless the other mark is a necessary part of the quoted matter .... 6. Cited Forms: ... e. After the first occurrence of non-English forms, provide a gloss in single quotation marks: Latin ovis 'sheep' is a noun. No comma precedes the gloss and no comma follows, unless necessary for other reasons: Latin ovis 'sheep', canis 'dog', and equus 'horse' are nouns.
- ^ ISBN 9780521471541. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
In the British style (OUP 1983), all signs of punctuation used with words and quotation marks must be placed according to the sense.
- ^ a b c "The Chicago Manual of Style Online" (17th ed.). University of Chicago Press. 2017. Sections 6.9-6.11. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
- ^ a b c Lee, Chelsea (11 August 2011). "Punctuating Around Quotation Marks". APA Style Blog. American Psychological Association. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
- ^ "Journal of Irish and Scottish Studies" (PDF). Research Institute of Irish and Scottish Studies, University of Aberdeen. 2008. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
Punctuation marks are placed inside the quotation marks only if the sense of the punctuation is part of the quotation; this system is referred to as logical quotation.
- ^ a b c Yagoda, Ben (12 May 2011). "The Rise of "Logical Punctuation"". Slate. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-19-869126-6. Emphasis in original.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-84713-1.
- ^ "The Jargon File, Chapter 5. Hacker Writing Style". CATB.org. Retrieved 7 November 2010.
- ^ "Punctuation". The Associated Press Stylebook. p. 337.
- ^ The Chicago Manual of Style Online: Q&A. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
- ISBN 9780205313426.
- ISBN 978-0771056857.
- ISBN 978-1-55860-658-6.
- ^ Other style guides and reference volumes include the following: U.S. Government Printing Office Style Manual (2008, p. 217), US Department of Education's IES Style Guide (2005, p. 43), The Canadian Style: A Guide to Writing and Editing (1997, p. 148), International Committee of Medical Journal Editors, International Reading Association Style Guide, American Dialect Society, Association of Legal Writing Directors' ALWD Citation Manual, The McGraw-Hill Desk Reference by K. D. Sullivan (2006, p. 52), Webster's New World Punctuation by Geraldine Woods (2005, p. 68), The New Oxford Guide to Writing by Thomas S. Kane (1994, pp. 278, 305, 306), Merriam-Webster's Manual for Writers and Editors by Merriam-Webster (1998, p. 27), Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers by Lynn Troyka, et al. (1993, p. 517), Science and Technical Writing by Philip Rubens (2001, p. 208), Health Professionals Style Manual by Shirley Fondiller and Barbara Nerone (2006, p. 72), The Gregg Reference Manual by William A. Sabin (2000, p. 247), The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation by Jane Straus(2007, p. 61), The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage by Allan M. Siegal, The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge (2004, p. 788), The Copyeditor's Handbook by Amy Einsohn (2000, p. 111), The Grammar Bible by Michael Strumpf, Auriel Douglas (2004, p. 446), Elements of Style by William Strunk and Elwyn B. White (1979, p. 36), Little English Handbook by Edward P. J. Corbett (1997, p. 135), Commonsense Grammar and Style by Phillip S. Sparks (2004, p. 18), Handbook of Technical Writing by Gerald Alred et al. (2006, pp. 83, 373), MIT Guide To Science and Engineering Communication by J. Paradis and M. L. Zimmerman (2002, p. 314), Guide to Writing Empirical Papers by G. David Garson (2002, p. 178), Modern English by A. L. Lazarus, A. MacLeish, and H. W. Smith (1971, p. 71), The Scott Foresman Handbook for Writers (8th ed.) by John Ruszkiewicz et al., Comma Sense by Richard Lederer, John Shore (2007, p. 138), Write right! by Jan Venolia (2001, p. 82), Scholastic Journalism by Earl English and Clarence Hach (1962. p. 75), Grammar in Plain English by Harriet Diamond and Phyllis Dutwin (2005, p. 199), Crimes Against the English Language by Jill Meryl Levy (2005, p. 21), The Analytical Writer by Adrienne Robins (1997, p. 524), Writing with a Purpose by James McNab McCrimmon (1973, p. 415), Writing and Reporting News by Carole Rich (2000, p. 60), The Lawyer's Guide to Writing Well by Tom Goldstein (2003, p. 163), Woodroof's Quotations, Commas And Other Things English by D. K. Woodroof (2005, pp. 10–12), Journalism Language and Expression by Sundara Rajan (2005, p. 76), The Business Writer's Handbook by Gerald Alred et al. (2006, p. 451), The Business Style Handbook by Helen Cunningham (2002, p. 213), Essentials of English by Vincent Hopper (2000, p. 127).
- ^ March, David (19 May 2011). "'The British style'? 'The American way?' They are not so different | Mind your language". the Guardian. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-19-861041-0.
- ISBN 978-0-87779-921-4.
- ISBN 0007145055
- ^ "Quotation Marks. Fowler, H. W. 1908. The King's English". Bartleby.com. Retrieved 7 November 2010.
- ^ "Character entity references in HTML 4". W3.org. World Wide Web Consortium. 24 December 1999. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
- ^ "Unicode Character 'RIGHT SINGLE QUOTATION MARK' (U+2019)". FileFormat.info. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
- ^ "General Punctuation: Range: 2000–206F" (PDF). Unicode.org. Unicode Consortium. Retrieved 21 December 2015.
- ^ Spencer, Dave (31 January 2011). "Typographic Train Wrecks". Glyphic. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
- Huffington Postexhibits the problem with "smart quotes".
External links
- Curling Quotes in HTML, SGML, and XML
- Quotation marks in the Unicode Common Locale Data Repository
- ASCII and Unicode quotation marks – discussion of the problem of ASCII grave accent characters used as left quotation marks
- Commonly confused characters
- Quotation mark