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Some ethnic groups, such as [[Batak (Indonesia)|Batak]] and [[Toraja]] in Indonesia and the [[Derung]] in China, use water buffalo or ''kerbau'' (called ''horbo'' in Batak or ''tedong'' in Toraja) as sacrificial animals at several festivals. Especially in the [[Tana Toraja Regency]], a local variety of water buffalo (''tedong bonga'') features a unique black and white colouration.
Some ethnic groups, such as [[Batak (Indonesia)|Batak]] and [[Toraja]] in Indonesia and the [[Derung]] in China, use water buffalo or ''kerbau'' (called ''horbo'' in Batak or ''tedong'' in Toraja) as sacrificial animals at several festivals. Especially in the [[Tana Toraja Regency]], a local variety of water buffalo (''tedong bonga'') features a unique black and white colouration.


===In Europe ===
===In Europe and the Mediterranean ===
It is generally considered that water buffalos were introduced to [[Europe]] from India or other [[Orient]]al countries. To [[Italy]] they were introduced about the year 600 in the reign of the [[Longobardia]]n King [[Agilulf]]. As they appear in the company of wild horses, it seems probable that they were a present from the [[Khan (title)|Khan]] of the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]], a [[Turkish people|Turkish]] nomadic tribe that dwelt near the [[Danube River]] at the time. [[Harry Johnston|Sir H. Johnston]] knew of a herd of water buffalos presented by a [[King of Naples]] to the [[Bey of Tunis]] in the mid 19th century that had resumed the [[feral]] state in northern [[Tunis]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Lydekker, R. |year=1898 |title=Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goats of all Lands |chapter=The Indian buffalo – Bos bubalis |url=http://archive.org/stream/wildoxensheepgoa00lyde#page/118/mode/2up |publisher=Rowland Ward |location= London |pages=118–128}}</ref>
It is generally considered that water buffaloes were introduced to [[Europe]] from India or other [[Orient]]al countries. To [[Italy]] they were introduced about the year 600 in the reign of the [[Longobardia]]n King [[Agilulf]]. As they appear in the company of wild [[horse]]s, it seems probable that they were a present from the [[Khan (title)|Khan]] of the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]], a [[Turkish people|Turkish]] nomadic tribe that dwelt near the [[Danube River]] at the time. [[Harry Johnston|Sir H. Johnston]] knew of a herd of water buffaloes presented by a [[King of Naples]] to the [[Bey of Tunis]] in the mid 19th century that had resumed the [[feral]] state in northern [[Tunis]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Lydekker, R. |year=1898 |title=Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goats of all Lands |chapter=The Indian buffalo – Bos bubalis |url=http://archive.org/stream/wildoxensheepgoa00lyde#page/118/mode/2up |publisher=Rowland Ward |location= London |pages=118–128}}</ref>


European buffaloes are all of the river type and considered to be of the same breed named the [[Mediterranean buffalo|Mediterranean]]. In [[Italy]] the Mediterranean type was particularly selected and is called ''Mediterranean Italian breed'' to distinguish it from other European breeds, which are not at the same genetic level. Herds can also be found in [[Romania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Greece]], [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]] and [[TFYR Macedonia]], and a few hundred in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], [[the Netherlands]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Hungary]]. There has been little exchange of breeding buffaloes among countries, therefore each population has its own [[Phenotype|phenotypic]] traits and performances. In Bulgaria, crossbreeding with the Indian [[Murrah buffalo|Murrah]] breed was undertaken. Some water buffaloes in Romania have been crossbred with ''Bulgarian Murrah''.<ref name=Borghese2005/>
Herds can be found in [[Turkey]], [[Greece]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], [[Hungary]], extreme south of [[Serbia]], [[Austria]] and [[Italy]]. As in Asia, they live on coarse vegetation on marginal land traditionally available to [[peasants]]. They are an economic asset by serving as a protein source, draft animal, and storage of family or household wealth. In some areas, they also provide occasional recreation at annual racing festivals. These buffalo are mostly river buffalo; due to genetic isolation, they have adopted a distinct appearance. Buffalo milk is used for the production of [[buffalo mozzarella]] in [[Campania]] and many other locations around the world.
Populations in [[Turkey]] are of the [[Anatolian buffalo]] breed.<ref name=Moioli2005/>


===In Australia===
===In Australia===

Revision as of 18:20, 20 February 2013

This article is about the domesticated water buffalo. For its endangered wild ancestor, see Wild water buffalo. For the wild African species, see African buffalo. For other uses, see Water buffalo (disambiguation).

Wikispecies has information related to Bubalus bubalis.

Water buffalo
Water buffalo cow in Thailand
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Mammalia
Order:
Artiodactyla
Family:
Bovidae
Subfamily:
Bovinae
Tribe:
Bovini
Genus:
Bubalus
Species:
B. bubalis
Binomial name
Bubalus bubalis
Subspecies
  • Bubalus bubalis bubalis - the river buffalo
Global distribution of buffaloes in 2004

The water buffalo or domestic Asian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is a large

domestic animal.[2]

The

species that is listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red List since 1986, as the remaining global wild population totals less than 4,000 individuals, with an estimate of fewer than 2,500 mature individuals. The population decline of at least 50% over the last 24–30 years is projected to continue.[3] It most likely represents the ancestor of the domestic water buffalo.[4]

Water buffaloes were domesticated in

phylogenetic study indicate that the swamp water buffalo may have originated in China, while the river water buffalo originated from India.[6]

The ancestry of the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is unclear, but it is not closely related to the water buffalo.[7]

Characteristics

Cape buffalo
(above) and Asian water buffalo (below)
albino water buffalo in Chiang Mai province
, Thailand

Water buffalos are ash gray to black. The hair is moderately long, coarse and sparse. The face is long is narrow. The ears are small. There is a tuft on the forehead. The horns are heavy at the base, curved backward and inward and marked with wrinkles. Adult domestic water buffalo are smaller than wild water buffalo, and range in weight from 250 to 550 kg (550 to 1,210 lb).[1]

The largest recorded horns are just under 2 m (6.6 ft) long.[8]

The swamp buffalo has 48

chromosomes; the river buffalo has 50 chromosomes. The two types do not readily interbreed, but fertile offspring can occur. Buffalo-cattle hybrids have not been observed to occur, and the embryos of such hybrids do not reach maturity in laboratory experiments.[9]
They can be black, white or both, with long, gently curved, swept-back horns.

The

digestive system of a ruminant of the water buffalo has important differences from that of other ruminants.[10]
The water buffalo
fungi zoospores. In addition, higher rumen ammonia nitrogen (NH4-N) and higher pH have been found as compared to those in cattle.[11]

Taxonomic history

Katsushika Hokusai
, ca. 1875

conspecific.[13]

Bubalus bubalis was used to be classified as a single

species comprising three subspecies, the arni B. b. arnee, the river buffalo B. b. bubalis of the Indian subcontinent, and the carabao or swamp buffalo B. b. carabanesis of the Philippines and Southeast Asia. Others regarded these as closely related but separate species.[14]

In 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature has fixed the first available specific name based on a wild population that the name for this wild species is valid by virtue of its being antedated by a name based on a domestic form. Most authors have adopted the binomial Bubalus arnee for the wild water buffalo as valid for the taxon.[15]

Ecology and behavior

Water buffalo enjoy being in water.
Water buffalo wallowing in mud

Water buffaloes are well adapted to a hot and humid climate with temperatures ranging from 0 °C (32 °F) in the winter to 30 °C (86 °F) and over in the summer. Water availability is of high importance in hot climates since they need wallows, rivers or splashing water in order to reduce the heat load and thermal stress. Some breeds are adapted to saline seaside shores and saline sandy terrain.[16]

They have wide-splayed hooves, which are used to prevent them from sinking too deeply in the mud. These adaptations allow them to move in wetlands and swamps. Water buffalo also prefer to feed in grasslands on grass and forbs. Water buffalo behavior differs from cattle. For example, most water buffalo are not trained to be driven. Instead, the herdsman must walk alongside or ahead of them. They then instinctively follow. They also rub against trees more often than cattle do, and they sometimes debark the trees, causing the trees to die.[citation needed]

Reproduction

A water buffalo calf in India

The water buffalo has a reputation for being a sluggish breeder.[citation needed] Without reasonable nutrition, the animals cannot reach puberty as early in life as genetic capability would normally allow. Females normally produce calves every other year after gestation of 9 to 11 months. Young bulls typically remain with maternal herds, which consist of around 30 buffalo, for three years after birth. They then go on to form small, all-male herds.

The average lifespan in captivity is up to 25 years.[citation needed]

Domestication and breeding

Java, Indonesia

Water buffaloes were domesticated in India about 5000 years ago, and in China about 4000 years ago. Two types are recognized, based on morphological and behavioural criteria – the river buffalo of the Indian subcontinent and further west to the Balkans and Italy, and the swamp buffalo, found from Assam in the west through Southeast Asia to the Yangtze valley of China in the east.[5]

species implies that the domestic buffalo originated from at least two populations, and that the river and the swamp types have differentiated at the full species level. The genetic distance between the two types is so large that a divergence time of about 1.7 million years has been suggested. The swamp type was noticed to have the closest relationship with the tamaraw.[17]
Results of mitochondrial DNA analyses indicate that the two types were domesticated independently.[18]

The present day river buffalo is the result of complex domestication processes involving more than one maternal lineage and a significant maternal gene flow from wild populations after the initial domestication events.[19] There are 22

Jaffarabadi, Anatolian and Egyptian.[20]

Distribution of populations

The water buffalo population in the world is about 168 million head.[16]

In Asia

Carabao cart in the Philippines in 1899

Asia is the native home of the water buffalo, with 95% of the world population and about half of the total in India. Many Asian countries depend on the water buffalo as their primary bovine species. It is valuable for its meat and milk, as well as the labour it performs. As of 1992, the Asian population was estimated at 141 million. Buffalo milk has the lowest water content and highest fat content amongst farm animals, and the butterfat is a major source of

Bos taurus
) to move in swamps. In India, buffalo populations are thriving because they are considered to be similar to the cattle, which are sacred to the Hindus. Some ethnic groups, such as
Derung in China, use water buffalo or kerbau (called horbo in Batak or tedong in Toraja) as sacrificial animals at several festivals. Especially in the Tana Toraja Regency
, a local variety of water buffalo (tedong bonga) features a unique black and white colouration.

In Europe and the Mediterranean

It is generally considered that water buffaloes were introduced to

Bey of Tunis in the mid 19th century that had resumed the feral state in northern Tunis.[21]

European buffaloes are all of the river type and considered to be of the same breed named the

the Netherlands, Switzerland and Hungary. There has been little exchange of breeding buffaloes among countries, therefore each population has its own phenotypic traits and performances. In Bulgaria, crossbreeding with the Indian Murrah breed was undertaken. Some water buffaloes in Romania have been crossbred with Bulgarian Murrah.[16]
Populations in Turkey are of the Anatolian buffalo breed.[20]

In Australia

Water buffalo on the side of a road in the Fogg Dam Conservation Reserve

Between 1824 and 1849, water buffalos were introduced into the

Indonesian archipelago. In 1886, a few milking types were brought from India to Darwin. They have been the main grazing animals on the sub-coastal plains and river basins between Darwin and Arnhem Land since the 1880s. In the early 1960s, an estimated population of 150,000 to 200,000 buffalos were living in the plains and nearby areas.[22]

They became feral and caused causing significant environmental damage. Buffalo are also found in the Top End. As a result, they were hunted in the Top End from 1885 until 1980. The commencement of the Brucellosis and Tuberculosis Campaign (BTEC) resulted in a huge culling program to reduce buffalo herds to a fraction of the numbers that were reached in the 1980s. The BTEC was finished when the Northern Territory was declared free of the disease in 1997. During the 1950s, buffalo were hunted for their skins and meat, which was exported and used in the local trade. In the late 1970s, live exports were made to

bush pilots. The horns, which can measure up to a record of 3.1 metres tip-to-tip, are prized hunting trophies.[23]

The buffalo have developed a different appearance from the Indonesian buffalo from which they descend.[citation needed] They live mainly in freshwater marshes and billabongs, and their territory range can be quite expansive during the wet season. Their only natural predators in Australia are large adult saltwater crocodiles, with whom they share the billabongs, and dingoes, which have been known to prey on buffalo calves and occasionally adult buffalos when the dingoes are in large packs.[citation needed]

In South America

Murrah Buffalo in a Brazilian Farm

Water buffalo were introduced into the Amazon River basin in 1895. They are now extensively used there for meat and dairy production. In 2005, the buffalo herd in the Brazilian Amazon stood at approximately 1.6 million head, of which approximately 460,000 were located in the lower Amazon floodplain.[24] Breeds used include Mediterranean from Italy, Murrah and Jafarabadi from India, and Carabao from the Philippines.

In Argentina, many game ranches raise water buffalo for commercial hunting.

In North America

One of the first milking herds in North America was in Canada at Fairburn Water Buffalo on Vancouver Island. The farm is owned and operated by Darrel, Anthea, Maryann, and Richard Archer. The Archers started milking in 2006 with Murrah Water Buffalo imported from Bulgaria. The milk is made into fresh Mozzarella cheese by Natural Pastures Cheese Company. There are now several dairy farms on Vancouver Island as well as farms in Alberta, Ontario, and Quebec.[citation needed] Vermont Water Buffalo Inc., known as bufala di vermont, is a water buffalo farm and creamery located in South Woodstock, Vermont.

There are very limited commercial herds in the USA, for yogurt and cheese products. In Gainesville, Florida, a University of Florida professor, Hugh Popenoe, has raised water buffalo from young obtained from zoo overflow. He uses them primarily for meat production (frequently sold as hamburger), although other local ranchers use them for production of high-quality mozzarella cheese.[citation needed]

Husbandry

ploughing in Si Phan Don, Laos
.
Water buffalo dung is dried against the façade of a house in Yuanyang County, Yunnan, China

Water buffalos are classic work animals in Asia, and an integral part of the traditional village farming structure. They are used for pumping water in Pakistan, hauling logs in Turkey, and hauling cotton and other bulk crops. They is often referred to as “the living tractor of the East”, as they are relied upon for ploughing and transportation in many parts of Asia. Their dung is used as a

helmets
.

Buffalo meat, sometimes called "carabeef", is often passed off as beef in certain regions, and is also a major source of export revenue for India, which has the largest population of buffalo in the world. In many Asian regions, buffalo meat is less preferred due to its toughness; however, recipes have evolved (rendang, for example) where the slow cooking process and spices not only makes the meat palatable, but also preserves it, an important factor in hot climates where refrigeration is not always available.

The bones and horns are often made into jewellery, especially earrings. Horns are used for the embouchure of musical instruments, such as ney and kaval.[citation needed]

Milk

Water buffalos provide more than 5% of the world’s

buffalo curd
.

Buffalo milk presents physicochemical features different from that of other ruminant species, such as a higher content of fatty acids and proteins.[25] The physical and chemical parameters of swamp and water buffalo milk differs.[26]

The chief dairy breed of buffalo is the

Murrah breed.[citation needed
]

Milk Composition Analysis, per 100 grams[27][full citation needed]

Constituents unit Cow Goat Sheep Buffalo
Water g 87.8 88.9 83.0 81.1
Protein g 3.2 3.1 5.4 4.5
Fat g 3.9 3.5 6.0 8.0
Carbohydrate g 4.8 4.4 5.1 4.9
Energy kcal 66 60 95 110
kJ 275 253 396 463
Sugars (Lactose) g 4.8 4.4 5.1 4.9
Fatty Acids:
Saturated g 2.4 2.3 3.8 4.2
Monounsaturated g 1.1 0.8 1.5 1.7
Polyunsaturated g 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2
Cholesterol mg 14 10 11 8
Calcium iu 120 100 170 195
Top ten buffalo milk producers — 11 June 2008[28]
Country Production (tonnes) Footnote
 India 56 960 000 Unofficial, Semi-official, mirror data
 Pakistan 21 500 000 official figure
 People's Republic of China 2 900 000 FAO estimate
 Egypt 2 300 000 FAO estimate
 Nepal 930 000 FAO estimate
 Iran 241 500 FAO estimate
 Myanmar 205 000 FAO estimate
 Italy 200 000 FAO estimate
 Turkey 35 100 FAO estimate
 Vietnam 31 000 FAO estimate
 World 85 396 902

Environmental effects

The water buffalo may affect the environment in either positive or negative ways.

waterfowl, wetland birds and other wildlife.[29][30] Grazing water buffalo are sometimes used in Great Britain for conservation grazing, for example to manage Chippenham Fen NNR. These buffalo have been found to be better suited to the wet conditions and poor-quality vegetation than many cattle.[31]

Currently, research is being conducted at the Lyle Center for Regenerative Studies to determine the levels of nutrients removed and returned to wetlands when water buffalo are used for wetland vegetation management.[citation needed]

However, in uncontrolled circumstances, water buffalo can cause environmental damage, such as trampling vegetation, disturbing bird and reptile nesting sites, and spreading exotic weeds.[14]

Research

First cloned buffalo

The world's first cloned buffalo was developed by Indian scientists from National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal. The buffalo calf was named Samrupa. The calf did not survive more than a week, and died due to some genetic disorders. So, the scientists created another cloned buffalo a few months later, and named it Garima. [32]

On 15 September 2007, the

genetically modified organisms (GMOs).[33]

Super carabao

On 1 January 2008, the Philippine

Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. Joseph Estrada's most successful project as an opposition senator, the PCC was created through Republic Act 3707, the Carabao Act of 1992.[34]

  • Bulgarian Murrah (Dairy) Asian water buffalo breeds, Philippine Carabao Center[1][2][
    Bulgarian Murrah (Dairy) Asian water buffalo breeds, Philippine Carabao Center[1][2][
  • The super carabaos at the milking and breeding station
    The super carabaos at the milking and breeding station
  • Panorama of the super carabaos from the view deck
    Panorama of the super carabaos from the view deck
  • The milk products of the Buffaloes
    The milk products of the Buffaloes

In culture

Ceramic water buffalo from 2300 BCE found in Lopburi, Thailand
Tropenmuseum
)
  • Legend has it that the Chinese philosophical sage Laozi left China through the Han Gu Pass riding a water buffalo.
  • According to
    Yama
    , rides on a male water buffalo.
  • The carabao subspecies is considered a national symbol in the Philippines.
  • In
    Hà Nội
    was named Kim Ngưu - Golden Water Buffalo.
  • The Yoruban Orisha Oya (goddess of change) takes the form of a water buffalo.

Fighting festivals

An unstaged water buffalo fight
  • "Hai Luu" Water Buffalo Fighting Festival of Vietnam[38][39] According to ancient records, the buffalo fighting in Hai Luu Commune has existed from the 2nd century B.C. General Lu Gia at that time, had the buffalo slaughtered to give a feast to the local people and the warriors, and organized buffalo fighting for amusement. Eventually, all the fighting buffalo will be slaughtered as tributes to the deities.
  • "Ko Samui" Water Buffalo Fighting Festival of Thailand[40][41] is a very popular event held on special occasions such as New Year's Day in January, and Songkran in mid-April, this festival features head-wrestling bouts in which two male Asian water buffalo are pitted against one another. Unlike in Spanish Bullfighting, wherein bulls get killed while fighting sword-wielding men, Buffalo Fighting Festival held at Ko Samui, Thailand is fairly harmless contest. The fighting season varies according to ancient customs & ceremonies. The first Buffalo to turn and run away is considered the loser, the winning buffalo becomes worth several million baht. Ko Samui is an island in the Gulf of Thailand in the South China Sea, it is 700 km from Bangkok and is connected to it by regular flights.
  • "Ma'Pasilaga Tedong" Water Buffalo Fighting Festival in Tana Toraja Regency of Sulawesi Island, Indonesia is a very popular event where the Rambu Solo' or a Burial Festival took place in Tana Toraja. It is very attractive moment before the buffalo are being sacrified.

Racing festivals

Water buffalo racing at Babulang 2006
Buffalo race at Vandar village, Udupi district, India.
  • Vihear Suor village Water buffalo racing festival, Cambodia:[43] Each year, millions of Cambodians visit Buddhist temples across the country to honor their deceased loved ones during a 15-day period commonly known as the Festival of the Dead but in Vihear Suor village, about 22 miles (35 km) northeast of the capital of Cambodia, Phnom Penh, citizens each year wrap up the festival with a water buffalo race to entertain visitors and honour a pledge made hundreds of years ago. There was a time when many village cattle which provide rural Cambodians with muscle power to plough their fields and transport agricultural products died from an unknown disease. The villagers prayed to a spirit to help save their animals from the disease and promised to show their gratitude by holding a buffalo race each year on the last day of “P'chum Ben” festival as it is known in Cambodian. The race draws hundreds of spectators who come to see riders and their animals charge down the racing field, the racers bouncing up and down on the backs of their buffalo, whose horns were draped with colorful cloth.
  • Karapan Sapi racing festival, Madura, Indonesia: The Maduranese people of the island of Madura, East Java, Indonesia, race their strongest and fastest buffalo in races hold regularly a few times a year, typically in August, September and October. It is a very popular spectacle in the towns of Pamekasan, Sampang, and Bangkalan. Besides the prize (and the pride that comes with it), buffalo that win a race are regarded very valuable and are a lot more expensive than their peers. This motivates the owners to feed their buffalo unusual cocktails of high calorie food composed of raw eggs, honey, and herbs, in addition to their regular training regimen, to give them the edge.
  • Pottu puttu matsaram, Kerala, South India: Similar to Kambala races.[44][45]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Nowak, R. M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World. Volume 1. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, USA and London, UK
  2. ^ Scherf, B. D. (2000). World watch list for domestic animal diversity. Third edition. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
  3. ^ Template:IUCN
  4. ^ Lau, C. H., Drinkwater, R. D., Yusoff, K., Tan, S. G., Hetzel, D. J. S. and Barker, J. S. F. (1998). Genetic diversity of Asian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis): mitochondrial DNA D-loop and cytochrome b sequence variation. Animal Genetics 29 (4): 253–264.
  5. ^ a b Cockrill, W. R. (ed.) (1974). The husbandry and health of the domestic buffalo. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
  6. ^ Yang, D. Y., Liu, L., Chen, X., Speller, C. F. (2008). Wild or domesticated: DNA analysis of ancient water buffalo remains from north China. Journal of Archaeological Science 35: 2778–2785.
  7. OCLC 62265494
    .
  8. ^ "Water buffalo". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 19 May 2009.
  9. ^ Kochhar, H. P., Rao, K. B., Luciano, A. M., Totey, S. M., Gandolfi, F., Basrur, P. K., King, W. A. (2002)."In vitro production of cattle-water buffalo (Bos taurus - Bubalus bubalis) hybrid embryos". Zygote 102):155–162.
  10. ^ Wanapat, M.; Ngarmsang, A.; Korkhuntot, S.; Nontaso, N.; Wachirapakorn, C.; Beakes, G.; Rowlinson, P. (2000). A comparative study on the rumen microbial population of cattle and swamp buffalo raised under traditional village conditions in the northeast of Thailand. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences 13 (7): 918–921.
  11. ^ Wanapat, M. (2001). "Swamp buffalo rumen ecology and its manipulation". Proceedings Buffalo Workshop.
  12. ^ Linnaei, C. (1758). Bubalis bubalus Page 72 in: Caroli Linnæi Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. Imensis Direct. Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae.
  13. ^ Ellerman, J. R., Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1966). Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals 1758 to 1946. Second edition. British Museum of Natural History, London. Pp. 383–384.
  14. ^ a b c Roth, J. and P. Myers (2004). "Bubalis Bubalis". University of Michigan Museum of Zoology Animal Diversity Web.
  15. ^ Gentry, A. Clutton-Brock, J., Groves, C. P. (2004). The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives. Journal of Archaeological Science 31: 645–651.
  16. ^ a b c Borghese, A., Mazzi, M. (2005). Buffalo Population and Strategies in the World. Pages 1–39 in Borghese, A. (ed.) Buffalo Production and Research. REU Technical Series 67. Inter-regional Cooperative Research Network on Buffalo, FAO Regional Office for Europe, Rome.
  17. ^ Tanaka, K., Solis, C. D., Masangkay, J. S., Maeda, K., Kawamoto, I. Y. and Namikawa, T. (1996). Phylogenetic relationship among all living species of the genus Bubalus based on DNA sequences of the cytochrome b gene. Biochemical Genetics 34: 443–452.
  18. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2052.2007.01602.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
    )
  19. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-186.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link
    )
  20. ^ a b Moioli, B. and A. Borghese (2005). Buffalo Breeds and Management Systems. Pages 51–76 in Borghese, A. (ed.) Buffalo Production and Research. REU Technical Series 67. Inter-regional Cooperative Research Network on Buffalo, FAO Regional Office for Europe, Rome.
  21. ^ Lydekker, R. (1898). "The Indian buffalo – Bos bubalis". Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goats of all Lands. London: Rowland Ward. pp. 118–128.
  22. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1964.tb01703.x
    .
  23. ^ Sharp, K. (2009). “Frontier to the Crossroads”. Outback Magazine 67:
  24. ^ Sheikh, P. A., Merry, F. D., McGrath, D. G. (2006). "Water buffalo and cattle ranching in the Lower Amazon Basin: Comparisons and conflicts". [3] Agricultural Systems 87: 313–330.
  25. ^ D'Ambrosio, C., Arena, S., Salzano, A. M., Renzone, G., Ledda, L. and Scaloni, A. (2008). A proteomic characterization of water buffalo milk fractions describing PTM of major species and the identification of minor components involved in nutrient delivery and defense against pathogens. Proteomics 8 (17): 3657–3666.
  26. ^ Khan, M. A. S., Islam, M. N., Siddiki, M. S. R. (2007). Physical and chemical composition of swamp and water buffalo milk: a comparative study. Italian Journal of Animal Science 6, (Suppl. 2): 1067–1070.
  27. ^ McCance, Widdowson, Scherz, Kloos. [4][dead link]
  28. ^ Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division
  29. ^ BBC News February 2004 Buffalo improve wildlife habitat
  30. ^ "Buffaloes and wetlands" -- grazing in wetland management: A discussion from the Ramsar Forum over late March 1998
  31. ^ "Buffalo improve wildlife habitat in Cambridgeshire". Natural England. 24 January 2008. Retrieved 10 August 2008.
  32. ^ Samrupa, World's first cloned buffalo calf from India. Retrieved from Topinews.com
  33. ^ Hicap, Jonathan M. (17 September 2007). "RP to produce Southeast Asia`s first cloned buffalo".
  34. ^ Uy, Jocelyn (31 December 2007). "'Super carabao' making the scene in year of the rats".
  35. The Telegraph
    . Calcutta, India. Retrieved 19 January 2008.
  36. ^ Do Son: buffalo fighting festival (Vietnam), 14 September 2005, VietNamNet Bridge
  37. ^ Do Son Buffalo Fighting Festival Vietnam, Asiarooms.com
  38. ^ Buffalo Fighting in Hai Luu Commune, Vietnam News Agency
  39. ^ VIDEO on YouTube:Water Buffalo-fighting festival: Buffalo-fighting festival is annually held on the 15th of the lunar two month in Hai Luu (Vinhphuc City). It results in this saying: "Go everywhere you want, but come back on the 15th of the lunar two month to attend the buffalo-fighting festival". Eventually, all those fighting buffalo are slaughtered as tributes to the deities.
  40. ^ Buffalo Fighting Festival Ko Samui, asiarooms.com
  41. ^ Buffalo Fighting Festival, Koh Samui Festivals & Events, Thailand. Hotel and Travel Links Co. Ltd. Thailand
  42. ^ Buffalo Racing, Thailand, thailand-guide.org (p) some content provided by Tourism Authority of Thailand, Last Updated : 1 July 2007; Watching the Buffalo Racing, by Panrit "Gor" Daoruang, 14 October 2003, Thailand Life; Running of the buffalo: Thais take their beasts of burden to the races; by: Alisa Tang, Associated Press Writer; Buffalo Racing, The lowdown by Aliwyn Cole, 1 August 2005, Urban Lowdown; "Running with the Buffalo", originally published in the Learning Post, a supplement of the Bangkok Post
  43. ^ Buffalo Racing in Cambodia, 27 September 2006
  44. ^ "Bull race held at Kaakkoor peacefully". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 27 February 2004.
  45. ^ "'Maramadi' winners". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 27 February 2004.

Further reading

  • Clutton-Brock, J. 1999. A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals. Cambridge UK : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-63495-4.
  • Guinness Book of Records
    , 2005
  • Nowak, R.M. and Paradiso, J.L. 1983. Walker's Mammals of the World. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-2525-3
  • Voelker, W. 1986. The Natural History of Living Mammals. Medford, New Jersey, USA: Plexus Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0-937548-08-1.
  • Roth, J. and P. Myers. "Bubalis Bubalis", University of Michigan Museum of Zoology Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved on 15 January 2009
  • Fahimuddin, M. 1989. Domestic Water Buffalo. Janpath, New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-204-0402-5.
  • The Water Buffalo: New Prospects For An Underutilized Animal. Washington, D.C. 1981. National Academy Press. ISBN 8183416.
  • Wilson, D. E. and Reeder, D. M. 1993. Mammal Species of the World, Second Edition, A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Smithsonian Institution.
  • Ruangprim, T. et al. 2007. Rumen microbes and ecology of male dairy, beef cattle and buffaloes. In: Proceedings Animal Science Annual Meeting, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand.
  • Thu, Nguyen Van and T. R. Preston. 1999. Rumen environment and feed degradability in swamp buffaloes fed different supplements. Livestock Research for Rural Development 11 (3)
  • Wanapat, M. 2000. Rumen manipulation to increase the efficient use of local feed resources and productivity of ruminants in the tropics. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 13(Suppl.): 59-67.
  • Wanapat, M. and P. Rowlinson. 2007. Nutrition and feeding of swamp buffalo: Feed resources and rumen approach. Paper to be presented at the VIII World Buffalo Congress, 19–22 October 2007, Caserta, Italy, organized by The International Buffalo Federation.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bos bubalus.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Buffalo in Indonesia.

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