Svetovit
Svetovit | |
---|---|
God of abundance, war | |
Polabian religion | |
Major cult centre | Cape Arkona, Rügen |
Weapon | sword |
Artifacts | horn of plenty, saddle, bit, flag |
Animals | white stallion, eagles |
Texts | Chronica Slavorum, Gesta Danorum, Knýtlinga saga |
Svetovit, Sventovit, Svantovit is the god of abundance and war, and the chief god of the
Etymology
In
Scholars agree on the reading of the Latin records;[4] the digraphs ⟨an⟩ and ⟨en⟩ indicate a Slavic nasal vowel.[4] In the first part of the theonym, there is an Old Polabian continuation of the Proto-Slavic adjective *svętъ (with a nasal [e]). At the Old Polabian stage, at least in northern dialects, as a result of the transition of [ę] into [ą] (nasal [a][a][b]), *svętъ passed into Old Polabian dialectal *svąt-. On this basis, the Old Polabian dialectal theonym is reconstructed as *Svątevit.[4]
In English publications god's name is being transcribed as Svantovit (from reconstructed Old Polabian *Svątevit), Sventovit or Svetovit (from hypothetical Common Slavic *Svętovitъ).
The prevailing[4] view in the literature is that *svętъ in Proto-Slavic language meant "strong, mighty", and only under the influence of Christianity did it acquire the religious meaning of "holy, sacred". Such a view was held by Aleksander Brückner,[c][6] Stanisław Rospond[7] and many others.
Nowadays, however, this view is sometimes criticized[4] and it is suggested that the meaning of "holy, sacred" should be considered original, Proto-Slavic.[8] Against the influence of Christianity on the meaning of the word is contradicted primarily by its etymology:[9] the closest cognates are Lithuanian šventas and Old Prussian swints "holy, sacred",[10][8][9] which, like PS *svętъ, are derived from the Proto-Balto-Slavic *śwentas.[11] Also closely related is the Avestan spəṇta "holy, sacred"[10][8] and Sanskrit śvānta.[9] Also further related are the Proto-Germanic *hunsla "offering, sacrifice",[12] and possibly Thracian *θιντ and Proto-Celtic *penta.[9] The Slavic word and words related to it ultimately come from the Proto-Indo-European root *ḱwen- "to celebrate".[9] Rick Derksen reconstructs PS meaning of *svętъ as "holy, sacred",[8] Wiesław Boryś as "being the object of religious reverence, worship".[13]
In academic literature, the theonym is traditionally[14] divided morphologically as Sveto-vit – in the second part there is supposed to be a suffix -vit (hypothetical PS *-vitъ) meaning "lord, ruler, hero".[15] The suffix is supposed to derive from *vitędzь "warrior, hero" of Germanic etymology.[16] Some researchers, however, have rejected the connection of the suffix with *vitędzь precisely because of the Germanic origin of the word;[17][18] some scholars have linked the suffix to the word *vitati "to invite, to wish health",[19] or the hypothetical verb *viti.[d] Depending on which original meaning of the word *svętъ a given scholar takes, the theonym is translated, for example, as "Strong hero",[21] "Strong ruler and lord",[17] or "Holy victor",[22] "Holy lord".[22] Some scholars also divide the theonym as Svet-ovit,[23] where the suffix -ovit means "one who has much (of something)", "characterized by (something)", and the theonym Svetovit is supposed to mean "The one with much that is holy".[24]
Other propositions
Brückner found the interpretation of the name problematic. He eventually suggested a possible connection with the hypothetical Old Polish word świętowity "holy, sacred", but this interpretation was rejected by Stanisław Urbańczyk.[25] The source material, however, confirms the existence of this type of words in Slavic languages, cf. Belarusian dialectal svyatovyy, Russian svyatovyy, Ukrainian *svyatovoy "holy, sacred", also probably Old Polish *świętowa "holy, sacred", all from Slavic *svętovy.[e] If this etymology is correct, the theonym consists of the adjective *svętovy, and the suffix *-itъ(jь).[26]
It has also been proposed that the meaning of the first part of the theonym should be translated, for example, as "world", or "light" (PS *světъ), but this interpretation has been rejected by linguists.
Sources
Svetovit is mentioned by three sources: the main information is given by Helmold's Chronica Slavorum and Saxo Grammaticus’s Gesta Danorum;[28] he is also mentioned by Knýtlinga saga.[2] Saxo writes most extensively about Svetovit,[29] his description of this god is the longest known text on the beliefs of the Slavs.[30][31] Excerpt from Saxo's description:
In the city center there was a flat space, where a temple made of wood could be found, which was very elegantly crafted, worthy of veneration not only because of the magnificence of its decorations, but also because of the divinity of the image placed inside. The outside perimeter of the building gleamed with a well-maintained covering, which consisted of shapes of different things painted in a crude, primitive style. Only one entry door could be seen. However, the temple itself was closed off by two enclosures, of whose walls the outside set was covered by a red roof; the interior, on the other hand, which was supported over four pillars, shone with wall hangings instead of walls, and did not share any structure with the exterior except the roof and a few beams.
In the temple, an enormous statue, which exceeded any type of human body in size, left one stunned, with its four heads and equal number of necks, of which two seemed to look at the chest and another two at the back. And of the two located on the front as well as the two on the back, one seemed to be gazing to the right and the other to the left. They had close-shaved beards and very short hair, such that one could think that the maker had imitated the Rani’s style of doing their hair. In its right hand it held a horn decorated with several types of metal, that the priest who was an expert in their rites would fill each year with pure wine, in order to make predictions about the coming year’s harvest through the state of the liquor itself. On the left there was a bow in the arm turned towards the side. There was a sculpted tunic that fell to its feet, which, made of different types of wood, connected to the knees with a junction that was so invisible that the point of union could only be discovered after a very careful examination. The feet were at ground level, with the base hidden below the floor. Not very far away were some bridles and a chair for the statue, and many emblems of the deity. The admiration for these things was further increased by a sword of an astonishing size, whose scabbard and hilt, in addition to excellent embossed decorations, were also covered in splendid silver.
Every year, every man and woman paid a coin as a donation for the worship of this idol. The idol was also given a third of the loot and the results of plundering, as if they had been attained and taken for his protection. This same god had three hundred horses and the same number of men who served as warriors on them, and all of their earnings, obtained through arms or robbery, were given to the custody of the priest, who, using the profits from these things,would create different types of emblems and various adornmentsfor the temple, and store them in tightly closed chests, in which, in addition to abundant money, a large amount of purple cloth had accumulated, eaten by time. There could also be seen an enormous amount of public and private donations, given by the fervent offerings of those who asked the deity for favors.
This deity also had in many other places other temples, which were governed by priests of a lower rank with less power. In addition to this, it had in its possession its own private horse, which was white, and whose mane and tail hair it was considered a bad omen to cut. Only one priest was allowed to feed it and ride it, so that the use of the divine animal was not seen as less valuable by being more frequent. In the opinion of the Rani, it was believed that Svetovit—that was the name of the idol—waged war against the enemies of his cult on this horse. The most important argument supporting this was that, when the horse remained in the stable the entire night, very often he would appear in the morning covered with sweat and mud, as if, returning from exercising, he had traveled long distances.[32]
Svetovit and Saint Vitus
According to some scholars, the theonym Svetovit allegedly derives from
For an old relation of our ancestors tells that in times of
Jesus Christ and in memory of Saint Vitus, who is the patron saint of Corvey. Later, the situation having changed with permission from God, the Rani moved away from the faith and, immediately driving out the priests and the Christians, changed religion for superstition. For they worshiped Saint Vitus, who we revere as a martyr and servant of Christ, as a god, setting creatures over the creator. There is no other barbarism under heaven more horrifying to Christians and priests; they only rejoiced in the name o Saint Vitus, to whom they even dedicated a temple and a statue with a very significant cult and they attribute especially to him the primacy of the gods. They ask of him prophetic answers regarding all the provinces of the Slavs, and pay sacrificial tribute annually. Not even the traders who coincidentally arrive at those places can sell or buy anything if they do not first make an offering of some precious object from their wares to the god and only then can they make their goods available to the public at the market. They honor their high priest no less than they would a king. And thus, from the time that they renounced their first faith, this superstition perseveres among the Rani until the present.[35]
Such a view was expressed by Evelino Gasparini,[36] or Henryk Łowmiański, but Łowmiański rejected the authenticity of the legend.[37] Instead, he proposed a hypothesis according to which the cult of St Vitus was supposed to have spread from Prague to Brenna – from there came Drahomira, the mother of Wenceslaus I, the founder of St. Vitus' Church in Prague – where it was accepted as a deity by tolerant Slavs, and after the fall of Brenna it was supposed to have reached Rügen.[38]
The view of the Christian origin of Svetovit is rejected by most scholars and historians.[h][i] It is generally believed that this legend was invented in the 12th century[40][41][37] to justify political claims to Rügen,[40][5][39] already known since the mid-11th century.[42] First of all, it is impossible that there was a Christianization of Polabia in the ninth century, let alone of Rügen in the ninth century[37] – the first documents attesting the Christianization of Rügen appear only after the fall of the Slavic Arkona in 1168, although chroniclers of the time were eager to describe the Christianization of any pagans – the Christianization of Rügen is not mentioned by Widukind of Corvey (The Deeds of the Saxons), nor by Adam of Bremen (Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum).[43] There is also an argument against such borrowing by given names of similar construction, e.g. Milovit, Radovit, Siemovit, etc.[42] It is also unclear why the Slavs would consider an unpopular saint as a chief deity.[22] The cult of St. Vitus itself was transferred to the Polabian region from Prague, not from Corvey.[44]
The origin of this legend is unclear. Helmold mentions a Christianizing mission to Rügen, but makes no mention of a tribute, and the monastery makes no mention of a mission, but mentions the right to collect a tribute from Rügen. The first to mention the loss of Corvey's right to Rügen was
In Serbia
Some publications claim that Svetovit was also worshipped in
At the end of the 19th century, in his book
Cult
Once a year there was a big feast in honor of the god. The day before, the priest would clean the temple, taking care not to let out any breath inside the temple, so as not to defile the presence of the god with human breath. The feast was held after the harvest. After the crowd gathered in front of the temple, animals were sacrificed and then a feast was held. The next day the crowd gathered in front of the temple and the priest checked the amount of alcohol in the horn situated in the statue of the god – if there was a lack of alcohol poured earlier, it predicted a crop failure and the priest ordered to make provisions, if there was no lack the priest predicted a good harvest for the next year. Then the priest poured out the liquor from the horn under the statue's feet and poured fresh liquor asking for prosperity for himself and the people. The priest would finish the ritual by taking a large gulp from the horn, then refilling it again and placing it in the statue.[51]
There is also a well-known ritual connected with a
The priest admonished the people to offer sacrifices to the god to ensure prosperity.[51] The Slavs voluntarily gave one coin a year to Svetovit. The god was also given ⅓ of the captured armor of enemies.[52] Neighboring kings were also said to have made gifts to the deity, such as a Danish king named Swen, probably Sweyn III of Denmark, who offered him a precious cup.[53] Merchants who came to trade on the island of Rügen were taxed in honour of Svetovit.[54]
A white horse was sacrificed to Svetovit. The god himself was supposed to ride this horse at night to fight his enemies, which was proved by the fact that in the morning the horse was drowsy and dirty. The horse could only be ridden by a priest to not diminish the value of the horse, and pulling a hair from its mane or tail was considered a sin. The horse was also used for divination: the priests set up three rows of spears with the spearheads downwards, where each row of spears was crossed with each other, if the horse crossed these rows of spears with its right foot first, it meant good luck in a planned battle or attack, if with the left first, the battle was called off.[55]
Saxo states that a
The cult of Svetovit officially ended in June[31] 1168 after the capture of Arkona by the Danes led by King Valdemar I and Bishop Absalon.[60][61][62]
(Valdemar) caused the antique statue of Svetovit, which is venerated throughout the country of the Slavs, to be taken out and ordered that a rope be placed around its neck and it be dragged among the entire army in view of the Slavs and, once it was reduced to kindling, that it be tossed into the fire. And he destroyed the temple with all of its cultural apparatuses and looted the shrine’s rich treasure. And he ordered them to abandon the error into which they had been born and to accept the worship of the true God (…).[63]
The fortress where the temple was located was on the island of Rügen, on the northeastern peninsula of Wittow, at the edge of Cape Arkona.[61] The remains of the temple have not survived to modern times, having been swallowed up by the sea. During recent archaeological investigations (20th and 21st centuries), merchant and military objects were found, confirming the high status of the castle, as well as the remains of human sacrifices.[64]
Comparative mythology and interpretations
The theme of horse riding at night is known throughout the Slavdom, but demons are responsible for it.
Svetovit as a hypostasis of Perun was also considered by Vyacheslav Ivanov and Vladimir Toporov.[73] There was a temple of Perun in Peryn. The statue of this god was in the middle of a circle, four bonfires oriented to the four directions of the world were placed on the edges of the circle, and four additional hearths were placed between them. Each main hearth could serve as an altar dedicated to a different hypostasis of Perun; the eastern hearth had more coal than the others. According to Ivanov and Toporov, this may correspond to the four heads of Svetovit and the four columns in the temple, and the eastern orientation of the temple at Arkona.[74]
Svetovit was also recognized by Radoslav Katičić as the Polabian hypostasis of Perun. He rejected the alleged cult of Svetovid, or Vid in Serbia as unjustified, but regardless of this theory he recognizes that St. Vitus in Serbia replaced the cult of Perun, as indicated by his worship of this saint.[50]
On the other hand, Andrzej Szyjewski considered Svetovit to be the god of vegetation and fertility, who also possessed solar qualities – he was a sun-hero, possessing a white horse. With time he acquired warlike qualities.[75] According to Aleksander Brückner, Svetovit, Triglav, Svarog and Dazhbog are one and the same deity worshipped under different names;[76] Stanisław Urbańczyk believed that Svetovit replaced Svarog, Svarozhits or Perun.[19]
Wolin Svetovit
Scholars have also linked to Svetovit a figurine, the so-called Wolin Svetovit, found on the island of Wolin, on which four faces are carved looking in four directions. The figurine is 9.3 centimetres (3.7 in) tall and was found in a house, which was located near a building interpreted as a probable temple. It is dated to the second half of the 9th century.[77][78]
Zbruch idol
Some scholars see an analogy to Svetovit in an idol from Zbruch, the so-called Sviatovid.[79][80] This statue was found in 1848 from the bottom of the Zbruch River, a tributary of the Dniester. It is a quadrangular limestone pillar, generally dated to the 9th-10th centuries. On the top are four faces facing the four directions of the world. Below, the four sides are covered with reliefs, which are often interpreted as specific deities, which are divided into three levels, which are sometimes interpreted as a cosmological division.[79] However, there are disagreements about the interpretation of the statue,[81] as well as divergent views about its dating, the very belonging to Slavic culture[82] is also subject to criticism.
In archeology
In Altenkirchen
In the Church in Altenkirchen (10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from Arkona), in the 13th-century wall of the sacristy, there is a granite slab measuring 1.19 × 1.68 m depicting a man with a moustache, wearing a cap and a long robe, holding a large horn. The slab is dated to the 10th-11th centuries, although it was not set into the wall until the 13th century or later;[28] according to David Chytraeus, the stone was already there in 1586 and was called Jaromirstein ("Jaromir's stone").[83] In the 18th century the slab was surrounded by the black painted inscription Sanctus Vitus oder Svantevit ("St. Vitus or Svantevit"), nowadays almost completely erased. Chytraeus, following a local legend, believed the slab to be a representation of Svetovit – a belief that persisted in Rügen folk tradition until the 19th century.[83]
Some scholars believed that the slab was, for example, a reused tombstone[84] of some Christian, such as Jaromir's brother, Tetzlav.[28] However, this is considered unlikely nowadays: the lack of Christian symbolism, the depreciative position (lying down, head down), and the horn and mustache, which were attributes of the god, indicate that this slab depicts Svetovit.[28][83]
In Bergen
In the context of Svetovit there is also a similar sized granite slab built into the outer wall of St Mary's Church in Bergen auf Rügen . The slab carves a figure (the so-called Monk) with folded arms on his chest in which he holds a cross. However, the cross is most likely located in place of a horn that had been carved earlier, analogous to the one in the Altenkirchen bas-relief.[85][83]
In Rodnovery
Nowadays there are religious associations referring to the ancient religion of the Slavs. The community that refers to the cult of Svetovit is Native Polish Church. Members of this religious association acknowledge the existence of the supreme god (henotheism), which is Svetovit. In this context, this community refers to the words of Helmold and Procopius according to which the Slavs knew the concept of the supreme god.[86]
In art
-
The Celebration of Svantovit, Alphonse Mucha, 1912
-
Svetovit, Andrey Shishkin, 2017
-
Świętowit of Rugia, Marek Hapon, 2016
-
Statue of Svetovit on Arkona by Marius Grusas
-
Svetovit in Fortsetzung der Algemeinen Welthistorie... by Ludwig Albrecht Gebhardieg
References
- Notes
- ^ Not to be confused with Polish ⟨ą⟩, which corresponds to the nasal [o] in modern times.
- ^ Urbańczyk compares the pronunciation of the Old Polabian [ą] to the pronunciation [a] in the Polish word awans ⓘ.[5]
- ^ Brückner believed that the word *svętъ meant the same as the word *jarъ "strong". On this basis he equated the names: Sviatopolk = Yaropolk, Sviatoslav = Jaroslav, and the theonyms Svetovit = Yarovit.[6]
- ^ Aleksandar Loma links this suffix with Old Church Slavonic vŭz-vitǐ, izvitije "prey, plunder", povinǫti "subdue", Bulgarian naviyam "I won", all of which contain the independently unattested verb *viti, which has a Lithuanian cognate of výti "to chase the enemy" and comes from the same stem as *vojь "soldier".[20]
- ^ Possibly also Czech svatovití m pl "holy, venerable" ← *svatovit "holy, venerable", if not a neologism (attested since 1856).[26]
- ^ Cf. modern Slavic languages' calques of Old Polabian *Svątevit and Saint Vitus: Polish Świętowit : Święty Wit, Bulgarian Svetovit : Sveti Vit, Russian Svyatovit : Svyatoy Vit.
- ^ Depending on the version of the legend, this refers to Louis the German, or Louis the Pious.[34]
- ^ "Most scholars, however, did not take note of this rumor [...]"[5]
- ^ „On the basis of the above, it appears that the entire story by Helmold and repeated by Saxo is regarded widely by modern historians as fictitious [...]”.[39]
- ^ It is unclear whether this referred to the colorfulness of the flag or the uncommonness of the color.[58]
- ^ In Bulgaria, a priest standing behind a pile of round bread asks people: "Can you see me?", and to an affirmative answer he replies: "May you for the next year not be able to see me quite so much," thus wishing an even greater harvest.[66]
- ^ According to Gieysztor, importing wine by the Polabians and dedicating it to Svetovit is possible but problematic. For this reason, he believes that the Latin word vinum "wine" used by Saxo can be understood as a synonym for alcohol.[66]
- ^ "I drink wine new, new from the old disease I cure myself".[66]
- References
- ^ Łuczyński 2020, p. 150.
- ^ a b Alvarez-Pedroza 2021, p. 448.
- ^ Katičić 2010, p. 18.
- ^ a b c d e Łuczyński 2020, p. 151.
- ^ a b c d e Urbańczyk 1991, p. 41.
- ^ a b Brückner 1927, p. 537.
- ^ Rospond 1983, p. 134.
- ^ a b c d Derksen 2008, p. 476.
- ^ a b c d e Łuczyński 2020, p. 152.
- ^ a b Vasmer 1986, p. 585.
- ^ Derksen 2015, p. 456.
- ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 256.
- ^ Boryś 2005, p. 623.
- ^ Zaroff 2019, p. 42.
- ^ Łuczyński 2020, p. 154, 155.
- ^ Zaroff 2019, p. 40–41.
- ^ a b Rosik 2020, p. 283.
- ^ a b Gieysztor 2006, p. 117.
- ^ a b Urbańczyk 1991, p. 193.
- ^ Loma 2002, p. 200.
- ^ Brückner 1985, p. 196.
- ^ a b c Szyjewski 2003, p. 116.
- ^ Łuczyński 2020, p. 154-155.
- ^ Łuczyński 2020, p. 163.
- ^ Brückner 1985, p. 192.
- ^ a b Łuczyński 2020, p. 164.
- ^ Rosik 2020, p. 281.
- ^ a b c d Strzelczyk 1998, p. 33-34.
- ^ Rosik 2020, p. 361, reference.
- ^ Gieysztor 2006, p. 123.
- ^ a b Banaszkiewicz 2018, p. 136.
- ^ Alvarez-Pedroza 2021, p. 184-187.
- ^ Łowmiański 1979, p. 190-191.
- ^ Łowmiański 1979, p. 190.
- ^ Alvarez-Pedroza 2021, p. 154-155.
- ^ Gasparini 1973, p. 567.
- ^ a b c Łowmiański 1979, p. 191.
- ^ Łowmiański 1979, p. 193-195.
- ^ a b c Zaroff 2019, p. 43.
- ^ a b Gieysztor 2006, p. 117-118.
- ^ Niederle 1924, p. 141.
- ^ a b Gieysztor 2006, p. 117-178.
- ^ a b Zaroff 2019, p. 45.
- ^ Rosik 2020, p. 280.
- ^ Łowmiański 1979, p. 191-192, reference.
- ^ Osięgłowski 1967, p. 260.
- ^ Soszyński 1984, p. 137.
- ^ Rosik 2020, p. 277.
- ^ a b Marković 2007, p. 47-49.
- ^ a b Katičić 2010.
- ^ a b c Szyjewski 2003, p. 114-115.
- ^ Gieysztor 2006, p. 122.
- ^ Strzelczyk 1998, p. 209.
- ^ Strzelczyk 1998, p. 166.
- ^ Gieysztor 2006, p. 122-123.
- ^ Szczepanik 2020, p. 343.
- ^ Trepczyk 1994, p. 37, 79, 84, 163, 236.
- ^ Banaszkiewicz 2018, p. 138.
- ^ Banaszkiewicz 2018, p. 133-153.
- ^ Strzelczyk 1998, p. 208.
- ^ a b Gieysztor 2006, p. 118.
- ^ Banaszkiewicz 2018, p. 133-134.
- ^ Alvarez-Pedroza 2021, p. 165.
- ^ Szczepanik 2020, p. 342.
- ^ Gieysztor 2006, p. 129-130.
- ^ a b c Gieysztor 2006, p. 125-126.
- ^ Gieysztor 2006, p. 127.
- ^ Gieysztor 2006, p. 129.
- ^ Gieysztor 2006, p. 125.
- ^ Banaszkiewicz 2018, p. 137-138, reference.
- ^ Gieysztor 2006, p. 124-130.
- ^ Gieysztor 2006, p. 114.
- ^ Ivanov & Toporov 1980, p. 450-456.
- ^ Ivanov & Toporov 1974, p. 26-27.
- ^ Szyjewski 2003, p. 116-117.
- ^ Brückner 1985, p. 32.
- ^ Szczepanik 2020, p. 142-143.
- ^ Gieysztor 2006, p. 312.
- ^ a b Szyjewski 2003, p. 88-89.
- ^ Gieysztor 2006, p. 124.
- ^ Szyjewski 2003, p. 40.
- ^ Szyjewski 2003, p. 233.
- ^ a b c d Słupecki 1993, p. 50.
- ^ Gieysztor 2006, p. 237.
- ^ Strzelczyk 1998, p. 46.
- ^ "Kult". Rodzimy Kościół Polski. Retrieved 2022-02-19.
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{{cite book}}
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- Rosik, Stanisław (2020). The Slavic Religion in the Light of 11th- and 12th-Century German Chronicles (Thietmar of Merseburg, Adam of Bremen, Helmold of Bosau): Studies on the Christian Interpretation of pre-Christian Cults and Beliefs in the Middle Ages. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004331488.
- Rospond, Stanisław (1983). Słowiańskie nazwy miejscowe z sufiksem -jь (in Polish). Wrocław.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Słupecki, Leszek Paweł (1993). "Słowiańskie posągi bóstw". Kwartalnik Historii Kultury Materialnej. 41. Institute of Archeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences: 33–69. ISSN 0023-5881.
- Soszyński, Jacek (1984). "Święty Wit a Świętowit Rugijski. Z dziejów legendy". Przegląd Humanistyczny (in Polish). 28 (9/10): 133–139.
- ISBN 83-7120-688-7.
- Szczepanik, Paweł (2020). Rzeczywistość mityczna Słowian północno-zachodnich i jej materialne wyobrażenia (in Polish). Toruń: ISBN 978-83-231-4349-9.
- Szyjewski, Andrzej (2003). Religia Słowian (in Polish). Kraków: Wydawnictwo WAM. ISBN 83-7318-205-5.
- Urbańczyk, Stanisław (1991). Dawni Słowianie. Wiara i kult (in Polish). Wrocław: Ossolineum.
- Zaroff, Roman (2019). "Rugian Slavic God Sventovit – One More Time". S2CID 203280509.
- Dictionaries
- Brückner, Aleksander (1927). "święty". Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego. Krakowska Spółka Wydawnicza.
- Boryś, Wiesław (2005). "święty". Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie. p. 623. ISBN 978-83-08-04191-8.
- ISBN 978-90-04-15504-6.
- ISBN 978-90-04-27898-1.
- Kroonen, Guus (2013). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-18340-7.
- Max Vasmer (1986). "свято́й". Этимологический словарь русского языка (in Russian). Vol. 3 (2 ed.). Moscow: Progress. p. 569.
- ISBN 8385011730.
- Vasmer, Max (1986). "свято́й". Этимологический словарь русского языка (in Russian). Vol. 3. Translated by Trubachyov, Oleg (2 ed.). Moscow: Progress. p. 569.
External links
- 3D reconstruction of the temple of Svetovit on YouTube commissioned by Opaliński Castle Museum]