User:Infamousbandersnatch/sandbox
Symbol | q |
---|---|
Antiparticle | Antiquark ( q ) |
Theorized | Murray Gell-Mann (1964) George Zweig (1964) |
Discovered | SLAC (~1968) |
Types | 6 (up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top) |
Electric charge | +2⁄3 e, −1⁄3 e |
Color charge | Yes |
Spin | 1⁄2 |
Baryon number | 1⁄3 |
A quark (
Physicists have classified quarks into six types, known as
Quarks have various intrinsic properties, including
Physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig independently proposed the quark model in 1964.[5] They introduced quarks as parts of an ordering scheme for hadrons, and until deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in 1968, little evidence for their physical existence has come to conscious awareness.[6][7] Physicists have since observed all six flavors of quark in accelerator experiments; the top quark, first observed at Fermilab in 1995, and the last discovered.[5]
Classification
The
We identify quarks as
We call the quarks which determine the quantum numbers of hadrons valence quarks; apart from these, any hadron may contain an indefinite number of virtual (or sea) quarks, antiquarks, and gluons which do not influence its quantum numbers.[11] Physicist classified two families of hadrons: baryons, with three valence quarks, and mesons, with a valence quark and an antiquark.[12] We find the most common baryons as the proton and the neutron, the building blocks of the atomic nucleus.[13] We know a great number of hadrons as (see list of baryons and list of mesons), most of them differentiated by their quark content and the properties these constituent quarks confer. The existence of "exotic" hadrons with more valence quarks, such as tetraquarks (
q
q
q
q
) and pentaquarks (
q
q
q
q
q
), many have conjectured[14] but not proven.[nb 1][14][15]
Elementary fermions group into three generations, each comprising two leptons and two quarks. The first generation includes up and down quarks, the second strange and charm quarks, and the third bottom and top quarks. All searches for a fourth generation of quarks and other elementary fermions have failed,[16] and there lingers strong indirect evidence that no more than three generations exist.[nb 2][17] Particles in higher generations generally have greater mass and less stability, causing them to decay into lower-generation particles by means of weak interactions. Only first-generation (up and down) quarks occur commonly in nature. Heavier quarks can only be created in high-energy collisions (such as in those involving cosmic rays), and decay quickly; however, many think they had presence during the first fractions of a second after the Big Bang, when the universe existed in an extremely hot and dense phase (the quark epoch). Physicists conduct studies of heavier quarks in artificially created conditions, such as in particle accelerators.[18]
Having electric charge, mass, color charge, and flavor, quarks represent the only known elementary particles that engage in all four
See the table of properties below for a more complete overview of the six quark flavors' properties.
History
Physicists Murray Gell-Mann[19] and
At the time of the quark theory's inception, the "particle zoo" included, amongst other particles, a multitude of hadrons. Gell-Mann and Zweig posited that they did not represent elementary particles, but instead contained combinations of quarks and antiquarks. Their model involved three flavors of quarks – up, down, and strange – to which they ascribed properties such as spin and electric charge.[19][20][21] The initial reaction of the physics community to the proposal seemed mixed. Some held particular contention about whether the quark depicts a physical entity or an abstraction used to explain concepts that many did not properly stand with at the time.[25]
In less than a year, others proposed extensions to the Gell-Mann–Zweig model.
In 1968,
The strange quark's existence received indirectly validation by SLAC's scattering experiments: not only does it assume a necessary component of Gell-Mann and Zweig's three-quark model, but it provided an explanation for the kaon (
K
) and pion (
π
) hadrons discovered in cosmic rays in 1947.[32]
In a 1970 paper, Glashow,
Two teams almost simultaneously produced charm quarks in November 1974 (see
J/ψ
meson. The discovery finally convinced the physics community of the quark model's validity.[30]
In the following years a number of suggestions appeared for extending the quark model to six quarks. Of these, the 1975 paper by Haim Harari[36] signifies the first to coin the terms top and bottom for the additional quarks.[37]
A team at Fermilab led by Leon Lederman observed the bottom quark in 1977.[38][39] This produced a strong indicator of the top quark's existence: without the top quark, the bottom quark would not have a partner. However, the CDF[40]
and DØ[41] teams at Fermilab[5] did not observe the top quark until 1995. It had a mass much greater than had they previously expected</ref>
K.W. Staley (2004). The Evidence for the Top Quark.
Etymology
For some time, Gell-Mann was undecided on an actual spelling for the term he intended to coin, until he found the word quark in James Joyce's book Finnegans Wake:
Three quarks for Muster Mark!
Sure he has not got much of a bark
And sure any he has it's all beside the mark.— James Joyce, Finnegans Wake[43]
Gell-Mann went into further detail regarding the name of the quark in his book, The Quark and the Jaguar:[44]
In 1963, when I assigned the name "quark" to the fundamental constituents of the nucleon, I had the sound first, without the spelling, which could have been "kwork". Then, in one of my occasional perusals of Finnegans Wake, by James Joyce, I came across the word "quark" in the phrase "Three quarks for Muster Mark". Since "quark" (meaning, for one thing, the cry of the gull) was clearly intended to rhyme with "Mark", as well as "bark" and other such words, I had to find an excuse to pronounce it as "kwork". But the book represents the dream of a publican named Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker. Words in the text are typically drawn from several sources at once, like the "
portmanteau" words in "Through the Looking-Glass". From time to time, phrases occur in the book as partially determined calls for drinks at the bar. I argued, therefore, that perhaps one of the multiple sources of the cry "Three quarls for Muster Mark" might mean "Three quarts for Mister Mark", in which case the pronunciation "kwork", I could not justify. ...)
Zweig preferred the name ace for the particle he had theorized, but Gell-Mann's terminology came to prominence once a majority accepted the quark model.[45]
The quark flavors gained their names for a number of reasons. Physicist named the up and down quarks after the up and down components of isospin, which they carry.[46] Strange quarks received their name because astrophysicists found components of strange particles in previously discovered cosmic rays years before Gell-Mann and Zweig proposed the quark model; these particles held the classification of "strange" because they had unusually long lifetimes.[47] Glashow, who coproposed charm quark with Bjorken, we quote as saying, "We called our construct the 'charmed quark', for we were fascinated and pleased by the symmetry it brought to the subnuclear world."[48] (translates: We called our construct the 'charmed quark', for we held fascination and pleasure due to the symmetry it brought to the sub-nuclear world.) Harari coined the names "bottom" and "top" because they represent "logical partners for up and down quarks".[36][37][47] In the past, some physicists refer to the bottom and top quarks as "beauty" and "truth" respectively, but these names have somewhat fallen out of use.[49] While "truth" never did catch on, people sometimes call the accelerator complexes devoted to massive production of bottom quarks "beauty factories".[50]
Properties
Electric charge
Quarks have
Spin
Spin is an intrinsic property of elementary particles, and its direction is an important degree of freedom. It is sometimes visualized as the rotation of an object around its own axis (hence the name "spin"), though this notion is somewhat misguided at subatomic scales because elementary particles are believed to be point-like.[52]
Spin can be represented by a
Weak interaction
A quark of one flavor can transform into a quark of another flavor only through the weak interaction, one of the four
ν
e) (see picture). This occurs when one of the down quarks in the neutron (
u
d
d
) decays into an up quark by emitting a virtual
W−
boson, transforming the neutron into a proton (
u
u
d
). The
W−
boson then decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino.[55]
n |
→ | p |
+ | e− |
+ | ν e |
(Beta decay, hadron notation) |
u d d |
→ | u u d |
+ | e− |
+ | ν e |
(Beta decay, quark notation) |
Both beta decay and the inverse process of inverse beta decay are routinely used in medical applications such as positron emission tomography (PET) and in high-energy experiments such as neutrino detection.
While the process of flavor transformation is the same for all quarks, each quark has a preference to transform into the quark of its own generation. The relative tendencies of all flavor transformations are described by a mathematical table, called the Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrix (CKM matrix). Enforcing unitarity, the approximate magnitudes of the entries of the CKM matrix are:[56]
where Vij represents the tendency of a quark of flavor i to change into a quark of flavor j (or vice versa).[nb 4]
There exists an equivalent weak interaction matrix for leptons (right side of the W boson on the above beta decay diagram), called the
Strong interaction and color charge
According to QCD, quarks possess a property called color charge. There are three types of color charge, arbitrarily labeled blue, green, and red.[nb 5] Each of them is complemented by an anticolor – antiblue, antigreen, and antired. Every quark carries a color, while every antiquark carries an anticolor.[59]
The system of attraction and repulsion between quarks charged with different combinations of the three colors is called strong interaction, which is mediated by force carrying particles known as gluons; this is discussed at length below. The theory that describes strong interactions is called quantum chromodynamics (QCD). A quark charged with one color value can form a bound system with an antiquark carrying the corresponding anticolor; three (anti)quarks, one of each (anti)color, will similarly be bound together. The result of two attracting quarks will be color neutrality: a quark with color charge ξ plus an antiquark with color charge −ξ will result in a color charge of 0 (or "white" color) and the formation of a meson. Analogous to the additive color model in basic optics, the combination of three quarks or three antiquarks, each with different color charges, will result in the same "white" color charge and the formation of a baryon or antibaryon.[60]
In modern particle physics,
Mass
Two terms are used in referring to a quark's mass:
The Standard Model posits that elementary particles derive their masses from the Higgs mechanism, which is related to the Higgs boson. Physicists hope that further research into the reasons for the top quark's large mass of ~173 GeV/c2, almost the mass of a gold atom,[66][68] might reveal more about the origin of the mass of quarks and other elementary particles.[69]
Table of properties
The following table summarizes the key properties of the six quarks.
Name | Symbol | Mass (MeV/c2)* | J | B | Q | I3 | C | S | T | B′ | Antiparticle | Antiparticle symbol |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
First generation | ||||||||||||
Up | u |
1.7 to 3.1 | 1⁄2 | +1⁄3 | +2⁄3 | +1⁄2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Antiup | u |
Down | d |
4.1 to 5.7 | 1⁄2 | +1⁄3 | −1⁄3 | −1⁄2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Antidown | d |
Second generation | ||||||||||||
Charm | c |
1290+50 −110 |
1⁄2 | +1⁄3 | +2⁄3 | 0 | +1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Anticharm | c |
Strange | s |
100+30 −20 |
1⁄2 | +1⁄3 | −1⁄3 | 0 | 0 | −1 | 0 | 0 | Antistrange | s |
Third generation | ||||||||||||
Top | t |
172900±600 ± 900 | 1⁄2 | +1⁄3 | +2⁄3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | +1 | 0 | Antitop | t |
Bottom | b |
4190+180 −60 |
1⁄2 | +1⁄3 | −1⁄3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | −1 | Antibottom | b |
Interacting quarks
As described by quantum chromodynamics, the strong interaction between quarks is mediated by gluons, massless vector gauge bosons. Each gluon carries one color charge and one anticolor charge. In the standard framework of particle interactions (part of a more general formulation known as perturbation theory), gluons are constantly exchanged between quarks through a virtual emission and absorption process. When a gluon is transferred between quarks, a color change occurs in both; for example, if a red quark emits a red–antigreen gluon, it becomes green, and if a green quark absorbs a red–antigreen gluon, it becomes red. Therefore, while each quark's color constantly changes, their strong interaction is preserved.[70][71][72]
Since gluons carry color charge, they themselves are able to emit and absorb other gluons. This causes
Sea quarks
Hadrons, along with the
q
v) that contribute to their quantum numbers, contain virtual quark–antiquark (
q
q
) pairs known as sea quarks (
q
s). Sea quarks form when a gluon of the hadron's color field splits; this process also works in reverse in that the annihilation of two sea quarks produces a gluon. The result is a constant flux of gluon splits and creations colloquially known as "the sea".[76] Sea quarks are much less stable than their valence counterparts, and they typically annihilate each other within the interior of the hadron. Despite this, sea quarks can hadronize into baryonic or mesonic particles under certain circumstances.[77]
Other phases of quark matter
Under sufficiently extreme conditions, quarks may become deconfined and exist as free particles. In the course of
The quark–gluon plasma would be characterized by a great increase in the number of heavier quark pairs in relation to the number of up and down quark pairs. It is believed that in the period prior to 10−6 seconds after the Big Bang (the quark epoch), the universe was filled with quark–gluon plasma, as the temperature was too high for hadrons to be stable.[84]
Given sufficiently high baryon densities and relatively low temperatures – possibly comparable to those found in
See also
- Color–flavor locking
- Neutron magnetic moment
- Leptons
- Preons – Hypothetical particles which were once postulated to be subcomponents of quarks and leptons
- Quarkonium – Mesons made of a quark and antiquark of the same flavor
- Quark star – A hypothetical degenerate neutron star with extreme density
- Quark–lepton complementarity – Possible fundamental relation between quarks and leptons
Notes
- ^ Several research groups claimed to have proven the existence of tetraquarks and pentaquarks in the early 2000s. While physicist still debate the status of tetraquarks, they have since established all known pentaquark candidates as non-existent.
- resonance width of the, which constrains the 4th generation neutrino to have a mass greater than ~45 GeV/c2. This would contrast highly with the other three generations' neutrinos, whose masses cannot exceed 2 MeV/c2.
Z0
boson - C symmetry).
- ^ The actual probability of decay of one quark to another is a complicated function of (amongst other variables) the decaying quark's mass, the masses of the decay products, and the corresponding element of the CKM matrix. This probability is directly proportional (but not equal) to the magnitude squared (|Vij|2) of the corresponding CKM entry.
- ^ Despite its name, color charge is not related to the color spectrum of visible light.
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Further reading
- A. Ali, G. Kramer (2011). "JETS and QCD: A historical review of the discovery of the quark and gluon jets and its impact on QCD". .
- ISBN 3-527-40601-8.
- ISBN 0-521-26092-2.
- ISBN 0-13-236678-9.
- ISBN 0-226-66799-5.
- ISBN 0-387-59439-6.
- ISBN 0-671-64884-5.
- ISBN 0-8018-7971-X.
External links
- 1969 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Murray Gell-Mann
- 1976 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Burton Richter
- 1976 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Samuel C.C. Ting
- 2008 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Makoto Kobayashi
- 2008 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Toshihide Maskawa
- The Top Quark And The Higgs Particle by T.A. Heppenheimer – A description of CERN's experiment to count the families of quarks.
- Bowley, Roger. "Quarks". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
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