User:Mathnerd314159/sandbox/Pharmacology of ethanol
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The pharmacology of ethanol involves both pharmacodynamics (how it affects the body) and pharmacokinetics (how the body processes it). In the body, ethanol primarily affects the central nervous system, acting as a depressant and causing sedation, relaxation, and decreased anxiety. The exact mechanism remains elusive, but ethanol has been shown to affect ligand-gated ion channels, particularly the GABAA receptor.
After oral ingestion, ethanol is absorbed via the stomach and intestines into the bloodstream. Ethanol is highly water-soluble and diffuses passively throughout the entire body, including the brain. Soon after ingestion, it begins to be metabolized, 90% or more by the liver. One standard drink is sufficient to almost completely saturate the liver's capacity to metabolize alcohol. The main metabolite is acetaldehyde, a toxic carcinogen. Acetaldehyde is then further metabolized into ionic acetate by the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH). Acetate is not carcinogenic and has low toxicity,[1] but has been implicated in causing hangovers.[2][3] Acetate is further broken down into carbon dioxide and water and eventually eliminated from the body through urine and breath. 5 to 10% of ethanol is excreted unchanged in the breath, urine, and sweat.
History
Beginning with the Gin Craze, excessive drinking and drunkenness developed into a major problem for public health.[4][5] In 1874, Francis E. Anstie's experiments showed that the amounts of alcohol eliminated unchanged in breath, urine, sweat, and feces were negligible compared to the amount ingested, suggesting it was oxidized within the body.[6] In 1902, Atwater and Benedict estimated that alcohol yielded 7.1 kcal of energy per gram consumed and 98% was metabolized.[7] In 1922, Widmark published his method for analyzing the alcohol content of fingertip samples of blood.[8] Through the 1930s, Widmark conducted numerous studies and formulated the basic principles of ethanol pharmacokinetics for forensic purposes,
Pharmacodynamics
In the past, alcohol was believed to be a non-specific pharmacological agent affecting many neurotransmitter systems in the brain.[12] However, molecular pharmacology studies have shown that alcohol has only a few primary targets. In some systems, these effects are facilitatory, and in others inhibitory.
Among the neurotransmitter systems with enhanced functions are:
Among those that are inhibited are:
Alcohol is also converted into phosphatidylethanol (a lipid metabolite) by phospholipase D2, and this metabolite has been shown to directly bind to and regulate ion channels.[18][19] The result of these direct effects is a wave of further indirect effects involving a variety of other neurotransmitter and neuropeptide systems, leading finally to the behavioural or symptomatic effects of alcohol intoxication.[12]
The order in which different types of alcoholic beverages are consumed ("Grape or grain but never the twain" and "Beer before wine and you'll feel fine; wine before beer and you'll feel queer") does not have any effect.[20]
The principal
Much progress has been made in understanding the pharmacodynamics of ethanol over the last few decades.
In 2007, it was discovered that ethanol potentiates
A 2019 study showed the accumulation of an unnatural lipid phosphatidylethanol (PEth) competes with PIP2 agonist sites on lipid-gated ion channels.[33] This presents a novel indirect mechanism and suggests that a metabolite, not the ethanol itself, can affect the primary targets of ethanol intoxication. Many of the primary targets of ethanol are known to bind PIP2 including GABAA receptors,[34] but the role of PEth will need to be investigated for each of the primary targets.
GABAA receptors
Many of the effects of activating
GABAA receptors containing the δ-subunit have been shown to be located exterior to the synapse and are involved with tonic inhibition rather than its γ-subunit counterpart, which is involved in phasic inhibition.[35] The δ-subunit has been shown to be able to form the allosteric binding site which makes GABAA receptors containing the δ-subunit more sensitive to ethanol concentrations, even to moderate social ethanol consumption levels (30mM).[37] While it has been shown by Santhakumar et al. that GABAA receptors containing the δ-subunit are sensitive to ethanol modulation, depending on subunit combinations receptors could be more or less sensitive to ethanol.[38] It has been shown that GABAA receptors that contain both δ and β3-subunits display increased sensitivity to ethanol.[36] One such receptor that exhibits ethanol insensitivity is α3-β6-δ GABAA.[38] It has also been shown that subunit combination is not the only thing that contributes to ethanol sensitivity. Location of GABAA receptors within the synapse may also contribute to ethanol sensitivity.[35]
Calcium channel blocking
Research indicates
Studies done by Katsura et al. in 2006 on mouse cerebral cortical neurons, show the effects of prolonged ethanol exposure. Neurons were exposed to sustained ethanol concentrations of 50 mM for 3 days in vitro. Western blot and protein analysis were conducted to determine the relative amounts of VGCC subunit expression. α1C, α1D, and α2/δ1 subunits showed an increase of expression after sustained ethanol exposure. However, the β4 subunit showed a decrease. Furthermore, α1A, α1B, and α1F subunits did not alter in their relative expression. Thus, sustained ethanol exposure may participate in the development of ethanol dependence in neurons.[44]
Other experiments done by Malysz et al. have looked into ethanol effects on voltage-gated calcium channels on
current in DSM cells and induced muscle relaxation. Ethanol inhibits VGCCs and is involved in alcohol-induced relaxation of the urinary bladder.[45]
Rewarding and reinforcing actions
The reinforcing effects of alcohol consumption are mediated by acetaldehyde generated by catalase and other oxidizing enzymes such as cytochrome P-4502E1 in the brain.[48] Although acetaldehyde has been associated with some of the adverse and toxic effects of ethanol, it appears to play a central role in the activation of the mesolimbic dopamine system.[49]
Ethanol's rewarding and reinforcing (i.e., addictive) properties are mediated through its effects on
With acute alcohol consumption, dopamine is released in the
With chronic alcohol intake, consumption of ethanol similarly induces CREB phosphorylation through the D1 receptor pathway, but it also alters NMDA receptor function through phosphorylation mechanisms;
Relationship between concentrations and effects
mg/dL | mM | % v/v | Effects |
---|---|---|---|
50 | 11 | 0.05% | Euphoria, talkativeness, relaxation, happiness, gladness, pleasure, joyfulness. |
100 | 22 | 0.1% | Central nervous system depression, anxiety suppression, stress suppression, sedation, nausea, possible vomiting. Impaired motor, memory, cognition and sensory function. |
>140 | 30 | >0.14% | Decreased blood flow to brain, slurred speech, double or blurry vision. |
300 | 65 | 0.3% | Stupefaction, confusion, numbness, dizziness, loss of consciousness. |
400 | 87 | 0.4% | Ethylic intoxication, drunkenness, inebriation, alcohol poisoning or possible death. |
500 | 109 | >0.55% | Unconsciousness, coma and death. |
Recreational concentrations of ethanol are typically in the range of 1 to 50 mM.[31][21] Very low concentrations of 1 to 2 mM ethanol produce zero or undetectable effects except in alcohol-naive individuals.[31] Slightly higher levels of 5 to 10 mM, which are associated with light social drinking, produce measurable effects including changes in visual acuity, decreased anxiety, and modest behavioral disinhibition.[31] Further higher levels of 15 to 20 mM result in a degree of sedation and motor incoordination that is contraindicated with the operation of motor vehicles.[31] In jurisdictions in the U.S., maximum blood alcohol levels for legal driving are about 17 to 22 mM.[57][58] In the upper range of recreational ethanol concentrations of 20 to 50 mM, depression of the central nervous system is more marked, with effects including complete drunkenness, profound sedation, amnesia, emesis, hypnosis, and eventually unconsciousness.[31][57] Levels of ethanol above 50 mM are not typically experienced by normal individuals and hence are not usually physiologically relevant; however, such levels – ranging from 50 to 100 mM – may be experienced by alcoholics with high tolerance to ethanol.[31] Concentrations above this range, specifically in the range of 100 to 200 mM, would cause death in all people except alcoholics.[31]
As drinking increases, people become sleepy or fall into a stupor. After a very high level of consumption[vague], the respiratory system becomes depressed and the person will stop breathing. Comatose patients may aspirate their vomit (resulting in vomitus in the lungs, which may cause "drowning" and later pneumonia if survived). CNS depression and impaired motor coordination along with poor judgment increase the likelihood of accidental injury occurring. It is estimated that about one-third of alcohol-related deaths are due to accidents and another 14% are from intentional injury.[59]
In addition to respiratory failure and accidents caused by its effects on the central nervous system, alcohol causes significant metabolic derangements.
List of known actions in the central nervous system
Ethanol has been reported to possess the following actions in functional assays at varying concentrations:[23]
- Decreased levels of nitric oxide in brain medulla[60]
- Increased levels of
- AMPA receptor negative allosteric modulator[29]
- Kainate receptor negative allosteric modulator[29]
- Glycine receptor positive allosteric modulator[26]
- Serotonin receptor positive allosteric modulator[26]
- Opioid receptor endogenous positive allosteric modulator[29]
- Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor positive allosteric modulator.
- Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor positive allosteric modulator[27][61]
- 5-HT3 receptor positive allosteric modulator
- Glycine reuptake inhibitor[62]
- Adenosine reuptake inhibitor[63]
- L-type calcium channel blocker
- GIRK channel opener
Some of the actions of ethanol on ligand-gated ion channels, specifically the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and the glycine receptor, are
Pharmacokinetics
The
Endogenous production
All organisms produce alcohol in small amounts by several pathways, primarily through
Auto-brewery syndrome is a condition characterized by significant fermentation of ingested carbohydrates within the body. In rare cases, intoxicating quantities of ethanol may be produced, especially after eating meals. Claims of endogenous fermentation have been attempted as a defense against drunk driving charges, some of which have been successful, but the condition is under-researched.[71]
Absorption
Ethanol is most commonly ingested by mouth,
Regarding inhalation, early experiments with animals showed that it was possible to produce significant BAC levels comparable to those obtained by injection, by forcing the animal to breathe alcohol vapor.[79] In humans, concentrations of ethanol in air above 10 mg/L caused initial coughing and smarting of the eyes and nose, which went away after adaptation. 20 mg/L was just barely tolerable. Concentrations above 30 mg/L caused continuous coughing and tears, and concentrations above 40 mg/L were described as intolerable, suffocating, and impossible to bear for even short periods. Breathing air with concentration of 15 mg/L ethanol for 3 hours resulted in BACs from 0.2 to 4.5 g/L, depending on breathing rate.[80] It is not a particularly efficient or enjoyable method of becoming intoxicated.[73]
Ethanol is not absorbed significantly through intact skin. The steady state flux is 0.08 μmol/cm2/hr.[81] Applying a 70% ethanol solution to a skin area of 1000 cm2 for 1 hr would result in approximately 0.1 g of ethanol being absorbed.[82] The substantially increased levels of ethanol in the blood reported for some experiments are likely due to inadvertent inhalation.[73] A study that did not prevent respiratory uptake found that applying 200 mL of hand disinfectant containing 95% w/w ethanol (150 g ethanol total) over the course of 80 minutes in a 3-minutes-on 5-minutes-off pattern resulted in the median BAC among volunteers peaking 30 minutes after the last application at 17.5 mg/L (0.00175%). This BAC roughly corresponds to drinking one gram of pure ethanol.[83] Ethanol is rapidly absorbed through cut or damaged skin, with reports of ethanol intoxication and fatal poisoning.[84]
Distribution
After absorption, the alcohol goes through the
The volume of distribution Vd contributes about 15% of the uncertainty to Widmark's equation[87] and has been the subject of much research. Widmark originally used units of mass (g/kg) for EBAC, thus he calculated the apparent mass of distribution Md or mass of blood in kilograms. He fitted an equation of the body weight W in kg, finding an average rho-factor of 0.68 for men and 0.55 for women. This ρm has units of dose per body weight (g/kg) divided by concentration (g/kg) and is therefore dimensionless. However, modern calculations use weight/volume concentrations (g/L) for EBAC, so Widmark's rho-factors must be adjusted for the density of blood, 1.055 g/mL. This has units of dose per body weight (g/kg) divided by concentration (g/L blood) - calculation gives values of 0.64 L/kg for men and 0.52 L/kg for women, lower than the original.
These calculations assume Widmark's zero-order model for the effects of metabolization, and assume that TBW is almost exactly the volume of distribution of ethanol. Using a more complex model that accounts for non-linear metabolism, Norberg found that Vd was only 84-87% of TBW.[92] This finding was not reproduced in a newer study which found volumes of distribution similar to those in the literature.[76]
Metabolism
Several metabolic pathways exist:
- One pathway involves alcohol dehydrogenase, particularly the IB (class I), beta polypeptide (ADH1B, EC 1.1.1.1) enzyme. The reaction uses NAD+ to convert the ethanol into acetaldehyde (a toxic carcinogen). The enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 family ALDH2, EC 1.2.1.3) then converts the acetaldehyde into the non-toxic acetate ion (commonly found in acetic acid or vinegar).[73][93] This ion is in turn is broken down into carbon dioxide and water.[73] Specifically, acetate combines with coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA synthetase) to form acetyl-CoA, via the enzymes acyl-CoA synthetase short-chain family member 2 ACSS2 (EC 6.2.1.1) and acetyl-CoA synthase 2 (ACSS1). acetyl-CoA then participates in the citric acid cycle.[72][94] At even low physiological concentrations, ethanol completely saturates alcohol dehydrogenase.[73] This is because ethanol has high affinity for the enzyme and very high concentrations of ethanol occur when it is used as a recreational substance.[73]
- The
- The activity of ADH and CYP2E1 alone does not appear sufficient to fully explain the increase in ethanol metabolism rate. There may be one or more additional pathways that metabolize as much as 25 to 35% of ethanol at typical concentrations.[75]
- A small amount of ethanol undergoes
Detailed ADH pathway
Energy calculation
The reaction from ethanol to carbon dioxide and water is a complex one that proceeds in at least 11 steps in humans. The first three steps of the reaction pathways lead from ethanol to acetaldehyde to acetic acid to acetyl-CoA. Once acetyl-CoA is formed, it is free to enter directly into the citric acid cycle. Below, the Gibbs free energy of formation for each step is shown with ΔGf values given in the CRC.[95]
Complete reaction:
C2H6O(ethanol) → C2H4O(acetaldehyde) → C2H4O2(acetic acid) → acetyl-CoA → 3H2O + 2CO2.
ΔGf = Σ ΔGfp − ΔGfo
C2H6O(ethanol) +
Ethanol: −174.8 kJ/mol
Acetaldehyde: −127.6 kJ/mol
ΔGf1 = −127.6 kJ/mol + 174.8 kJ/mol = 47.2 kJ/mol (endergonic)
ΣΔGf = 47.2 kJ/mol (endergonic, but this does not take into consideration the simultaneous reduction of NAD+.)
C2H4O(acetaldehyde) +
Acetaldehyde: −127.6 kJ/mol
Acetic acid: −389.9 kJ/mol
ΔGf2 = −389.9 kJ/mol + 127.6 kJ/mol = −262.3 kJ/mol (exergonic)
ΣΔGf = −262.3 kJ/mol + 47.2 kJ/mol = −215.1 kJ/mol (exergonic, but again this does not take into consideration the reduction of
C2H4O2(acetic acid) + CoA + ATP → Acetyl-CoA + AMP + PPi
ΔGf3 = −46.8 kJ/mol[96]
After this the acetyl-CoA enters the TCA cycle and is converted to 2 CO2 molecules in 8 reactions.
Because the Gibbs energy is a state function, we can ignore all of these, and indeed can ignore even the above 3 reactions. Overall, the free energy is simply calculated from the free energy of formation of the product and reactants.
For the oxidation of acetic acid we have:
Acetic acid: −389.9 kJ/mol
3H2O + 2CO2: −1500.1 kJ/mol
ΔGf4 = −1500 kJ/mol + 389.6 kJ/mol = −1110.5 kJ/mol (exergonic)
ΣΔGf = −1110.5 kJ/mol − 215.1 kJ/mol = −1325.6 kJ/mol (exergonic)
If catabolism of alcohol goes all the way to completion, then we have a very exothermic event yielding some 1325 kJ/mol of energy. If the reaction stops part way through the metabolic pathways, which happens because acetic acid is excreted in the urine after drinking, then not nearly as much energy can be derived from alcohol, indeed, only 215.1 kJ/mol. At the very least, the theoretical limits on energy yield are determined to be −215.1 kJ/mol to −1325.6 kJ/mol. Step 1 on this reaction is endothermic, requiring 47.2 kJ/mol of alcohol, or about 3 molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) per molecule of ethanol.
Variation
Variations in genes influence alcohol metabolism and drinking behavior.[97] Certain amino acid sequences in the enzymes used to oxidize ethanol are conserved (unchanged) going back to the last common ancestor over 3.5 bya.[98] Evidence suggests that humans evolved the ability to metabolize dietary ethanol between 7 and 21 million years ago, in a common ancestor shared with chimpanzees and gorillas but not orangutans.[99] Gene variation in these enzymes can lead to variation in catalytic efficiency between individuals. Some individuals have less effective metabolizing enzymes of ethanol, and can experience more marked symptoms from ethanol consumption than others.[100] However, those having acquired alcohol tolerance have a greater quantity of these enzymes, and metabolize ethanol more rapidly. Specifically, ethanol has been observed to be cleared more quickly by regular drinkers than non-drinkers.[100]
Falsely high BAC readings may be seen in patients with kidney or liver disease or failure. Such persons also have impaired acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, which causes acetaldehyde levels to peak higher, producing more severe
First-pass metabolism
During a typical drinking session, approximately 90% of the metabolism of ethanol occurs in the liver,[73][93] where alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase are present at their highest concentrations (in liver mitochondria).[94] But these enzymes are widely expressed throughout the body, such as in the stomach and small intestine.[72] Some alcohol undergoes a first pass of metabolism in these areas, before it ever enters the bloodstream.[101]
Much higher concentrations of enzymes required for the oxidation reactions are found in the liver,[102] which is the primary site for alcohol catabolism.
Quantification
Unlike most physiologically active materials, alcohol is removed from the bloodstream at an approximately constant rate (linear decay or
An "abnormal" liver with conditions such as
In alcoholics
Under alcoholic conditions, the citric acid cycle is stalled by the oversupply of NADH derived from ethanol oxidation. The resulting backup of acetate shifts the reaction equilibrium for acetaldehyde dehydrogenase back towards acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde subsequently accumulates and begins to form covalent bonds with cellular macromolecules, forming toxic adducts that, eventually, lead to death of the cell. This same excess of NADH from ethanol oxidation causes the liver to move away from fatty acid oxidation, which produces NADH, towards fatty acid synthesis, which consumes NADH. This consequent
In human fetuses
In human embryos and fetuses, ethanol is not metabolized via ADH as ADH enzymes are not yet expressed to any significant quantity in human fetal liver (the induction of ADH only starts after birth, and requires years to reach adult levels).[107] Accordingly, the fetal liver cannot metabolize ethanol or other low molecular weight xenobiotics. In fetuses, ethanol is instead metabolized at much slower rates by different enzymes from the cytochrome P-450 superfamily (CYP), in particular by CYP2E1. The low fetal rate of ethanol clearance is responsible for the important observation that the fetal compartment retains high levels of ethanol long after ethanol has been cleared from the maternal circulation by the adult ADH activity in the maternal liver.[108] CYP2E1 expression and activity have been detected in various human fetal tissues after the onset of organogenesis (ca 50 days of gestation).[109] Exposure to ethanol is known to promote further induction of this enzyme in fetal and adult tissues. CYP2E1 is a major contributor to the so-called Microsomal Ethanol Oxidizing System (MEOS)[110] and its activity in fetal tissues is thought to contribute significantly to the toxicity of maternal ethanol consumption.[107][111] In presence of ethanol and oxygen, CYP2E1 is known[by whom?] to release superoxide radicals and induce the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids to toxic aldehyde products like 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE).[citation needed]
The concentration of alcohol in breast milk produced during lactation is closely correlated to the individual's blood alcohol content.[112]
Elimination
Alcohol is removed from the bloodstream by a combination of metabolism, excretion, and evaporation. 90-98% of ingested ethanol is metabolized into carbon dioxide and water.
The elimination rate is described well by Michaelis–Menten kinetics. M-M kinetics are approximately zero-order above a BAC of 0.15-0.20 g/L, but below this value alcohol is eliminated more slowly and the elimination rate more closely follows first-order kinetics. This change in behavior was not noticed by Widmark because he could not analyze low BAC levels.[88] Eating food in proximity to drinking increases elimination rate significantly.[76]
The elimination rate from the blood is statistically significant between sexes, but the difference is small compared to the overall uncertainty.[116] Explanations for the gender difference are quite varied and include liver size, secondary effects of the volume of distribution, and sex-specific hormones.[117] A 2023 study using a more complex two-compartment model with M-M elimination kinetics, with data from 60 men and 12 women, found statistically small effects of gender on maximal elimination rate and excluded them from the final model. Eating food in proximity to drinking increases elimination rate significantly.[76]
Modeling
Swedish professor Erik Widmark developed a model of alcohol pharmacokinetics in the 1920s.
Onset
In fasting volunteers, blood levels of ethanol increase proportionally with the dose of ethanol administered.
Peak circulating levels of ethanol are usually reached within a range of 30 to 90 minutes of ingestion, with an average of 45 to 60 minutes.[73][72] People who have fasted overnight have been found to reach peak ethanol concentrations more rapidly, at within 30 minutes of ingestion.[73]
The onset varies depends on the type of alcoholic drink:[122]
- Vodka tonic: 36 ± 10 minutes
- Wine: 54 ± 14 minutes
- Beer: 62 ± 23 minutes
Also, carbonated alcoholic drinks seem to have a shorter onset compare to flat drinks in the same volume. One theory is that carbon dioxide in the bubbles somehow speeds the flow of alcohol into the intestines.[123]
The peak of blood alcohol level (or concentration of alcohol) is reduced after a large meal.[78]
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