User:Peter morrell/Buddhism

The five precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well.

1. To refrain from taking life. (i.e. non-violence towards sentient life forms)

2. To refrain from taking that which is not given (i.e. not committing theft)

3. To refrain from sensual misconduct (abstinence from immoral sexual behavior)

4. To refrain from lying. (i.e. speaking truth always)

5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (refrain from using drugs or alcohol)

In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of celibacy.

The three additional rules of the eight precepts are:

6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise to noon)

7. To refrain from dancing, using jewelery, going to shows, etc.

8. To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed.

1. There is suffering
2. There is a cause of suffering - craving
3. There is the cessation of suffering
4. There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering - the Noble Eightfold Path

According to the scriptures, the Four Noble Truths were among the topics of the first sermon given by the

According to a saying attributed in some traditions to

The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. This is divided into three sections: Sila (which concerns wholesome physical actions), Samadhi (which concerns the meditative concentration of the mind) and Prajñā (which concerns spiritual insight into the true nature of all things).

Sila is morality — abstaining from unwholesome deeds of body and speech. Within the division of sila are three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:

1. Right Speech — One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way (samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)
2. Right Actions — Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm (samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)
3. Right Livelihood — One's way of livelihood does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva)

Samadhi is developing mastery over one’s own mind. Within this division are another three parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:

1. Right Effort/Exercise — One makes an effort to improve (samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)
2. Right Mindfulness/Awareness — Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness (samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)
3. Right Concentration/Meditation — Being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion. (samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)

Prajñā is the wisdom which purifies the mind. Within this division fall two more parts of the Noble Eightfold Path:

1. Right Understanding — Understanding reality as it is, not just as it appears to be. (samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)
2. Right Thoughts — Change in the pattern of thinking. (samyak-saṃkalpa, sammā-saṅkappa)

The word samyak means "perfect". There are a number of ways to interpret the Eightfold Path. On one hand, the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, whereas others see the states of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development. It is also common to categorize the Eightfold Path into prajñā (Pāli paññā, wisdom), śīla (Pāli sīla, virtuous behavior) and samādhi (concentration).

Councils

According to the scriptures, soon after the

As the Saṅgha gradually grew over the next century a dispute arose regarding ten points of discipline. A

Schisms

At some period after the Second Council however, the Sangha began to break into separate factions. The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred: according to the Dipavamsa of the Pali tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council; the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN; the Sarvastivada tradition of Vasumitra says it was in the time of Asoka; and the Mahasanghika tradition places it much later, nearly 100 BCE. 

The Asokan edicts, our only contemporary sources, state that 'the Sangha has been made unified'. This apparently refers to a dispute such as that described in the account of the

These schisms occurred within the traditions of Early Buddhism, at a time when the Mahāyāna movement either did not exist at all, or only existed as a current of thought not yet identified with a separate school.

The root schism was between the

Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an

Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the Mauryan emperor Aśoka the Great, who was a public supporter of the religion. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more Buddhist religious memorials (stūpas) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands – particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the islands of Sri Lanka and the Maldives south of India. These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.

This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to the

Mahayana Buddhism generally regards as its most important teaching the path of the bodhisattva. This already existed as a possibility in earlier Buddhism, a it still does in Theravada today, but the Mahayana gave it an increasing emphasis, eventually saying everyone should follow it.

Around 100 CE, the Kushan emperor

There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its tantric practice started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were written down long after the Buddha's other teachings. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theory were transmitted to China, Tibet, Maldives, Indochina and Southeast Asia. China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered to be Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nālandā tradition.

In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject,

The most common way scholars categorize Buddhist schools follows the major languages of the extant Buddhist canons, which exist in

• All accept
  the Buddha
  as their teacher.
• All accept the
  Dependent origination, the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path
  .
• All accept that both the members of the laity and of the Sangha can pursue the path toward enlightenment (
  bodhi
  ).
• All consider Buddhahood to be the highest attainment.

In addition to the

It was long believed in Theravāda tradition that the

.

The Theravāda school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the

Tripitaka

), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.

Theravāda is the only surviving representative of the historical early Buddhist schools. Theravāda is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has a growing presence in Europe and America.

Eastern (East Asian) Buddhism

Main article: Mahayana

Bodhisattvas

devoting themselves to personal excellence, ultimate knowledge and the salvation of humanity (and indeed of all living beings, including animals, ghosts and gods). In Mahayana, the Buddha became an idealized man-god and the Bodhisattva was the universal ideal of excellence.

The Mahayana branch emphasizes infinite, universal compassion (maha-karuna) or the selfless, ultra-altruistic quest of the Bodhisattva to attain the "Awakened Mind" (

God in Buddhism

).

In addition to the

Mahayana scriptures

. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself. Mahayana Buddhism shows a great deal of doctrinal variation and development over time, and even more variation in terms of practice. While there is much agreement on general principles, there is disagreement over which texts are more authoritative.

Native Eastern Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, parts of Russia and most of Vietnam. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but will be discussed below under the heading of Northern Buddhism. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, which in most of this area are fused into a single unified form of Buddhism. However, in Japan they form separate denominations. The five major ones are the following.

• Chan/Zen
• Pure Land
• Nichiren, peculiar to Japan
• Shingon
  , a form of Vajrayana
• Tendai

Northern (Tibetan) Buddhism

Main article: Vajrayana

Though thoroughly based upon

esoteric Buddhism). It therefore accepts all the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In addition to the Theravāda and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of Buddhist Tantras

, some of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature.

Buddhist texts

Pāli Canon
1. Vinaya Piṭaka
1. Suttavibhaṅga 2. Khandhaka 3. Parivāra
2. Sutta Piṭaka
1. Dīgha Nikāya 2. Majjhima Nikāya 3. Saṃyutta Nikāya 4. Aṅguttara Nikāya 5. Khuddaka Nikāya
3. Abhidhamma Piṭaka
1. Dhammasaṅgaṇī 2. Vibhaṅga 3. Dhātukathā 4. Puggalapaññatti 5. Kathāvatthu 6. Yamaka 7. Paṭṭhāna
v t e

Main article: Buddhist texts

Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety. Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on them. Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach. The Buddhist canon of

Pāli

as the Tipitaka. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refer to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:

• The
  Sanghas of Buddhist monks and nuns
  , as well as a range of other texts including explanations of why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
• The
  the Buddha
  .
• The
  Abhidhamma Pitaka
  ) contains commentaries or systematic expositions of the Buddha's teachings.

According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named

Upāli

, another disciple, recited the rules of the Vinaya. These became the basis of the Tripitaka. However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in a much later period. Both the sūtras and the Vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma, commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Buddha's previous lives, and lists relating to various subjects.

The

Buddhas or bodhisattvas. Some six hundred Mahāyāna sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan

translations.

The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own versions of the Vinaya. The Pāli sutras, along with other, closely-related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the āgamas.

Whereas the Theravādins adhere solely to the Pali canon and its commentaries, the adherents of Mahāyāna accept both the agamas and the Mahāyāna sūtras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravādins, however, the Mahayana sūtras are works of poetic fiction, not the words of the Buddha himself. The Theravadins are confident that the Pali canon represents the full and final statement by the Buddha of his Dhamma — and nothing more is truly needed beyond that. Anything added which claims to be the word of the Buddha and yet is not found in the Canon or its commentaries is treated with extreme caution if not outright rejection by Theravada.

For the Mahāyānists, in contrast, the āgamas do indeed contain basic, foundational, and, therefore, relatively weighty pronouncements of the Buddha, but in their view, the Mahāyāna sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, more advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the

Mahayana Sutras

does not make them a true account of the life and teachings of Gautama Buddha.

Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. However, scholars have referred to the

Babasaheb Ambedkar

) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.

Over the years, various attempts have been made at synthesizing a single Buddhist text that will encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. In the Theravada tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks. Later in Sri Lanka, the Dhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture.

Dwight Goddard collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen — along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the Tao Te Ching — into his Buddhist Bible in the 1920s. More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles with his “The Buddha and His Dhamma”. Other such efforts have persisted to the present day, but currently there is no single text widely accepted as being central to all Buddhist traditions.

Buddhist symbols

Main article: Buddhist symbolism

The eight auspicious symbols of Buddhism are:

• the Parasol (Umbrella)
• the Golden Fish
• the Treasure Vase
• the Lotus
• the Conch Shell
• the Endless Knot
• the Victory Banner
• the
  Dharma wheel

Present state of Buddhism

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2010)

Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary from 230 to 500 million, but the most common figure today is between 350 and 400 million.^[23]

• Pāli as its scriptural language, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. Also the Dalit Buddhist movement in India (inspired by B. R. Ambedkar
  ) practices Theravada.
• East Asian forms of Buddhism that use scriptures in Chinese are dominant in most of China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Vietnam as well as within Chinese and Japanese communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West.
• Northern Buddhism, using the Tibetan language, is found in
  Russian Federation
  .
• Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated to some eastern tradition listed above. An exception is the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, though they can be considered Mahayanist in a broad sense.

At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages. While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organised and well funded. In a number of countries, it is recognised as an official religion and receives state support. In the West, Buddhism is recognised as one of the growing spiritual influences. (see Buddhism in the West)

See also Buddhism by country

Comparative study

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2010)

Buddhism is a fertile ground for comparative studies with different beliefs, philosophy, science, history, and various other aspects of Buddhism. In term of doctrine,

Middle way

not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but it has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various local beliefs, customs, and institutions in adopted countries for most of its history.

List of Buddhism related topics in comparative studies

• Buddhism and Hinduism
• Buddhism and Eastern teaching
  (Buddhism and East Asian teaching)
• God in Buddhism
  (Buddhism and monotheism)
• Christianity and Buddhism
• Buddhist philosophy (Buddhism and Western philosophy)
• Buddhist Ethics
  (Buddhism and ethics)
• Buddhism and science (Buddhism and science)
• Buddhism and psychology
• Jainism and Buddhism

See also

• Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and the Mahayana
• Buddhist terms and concepts
• List of Buddhist topics
• List of Buddhists
• shinbutsu shūgō

References

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Buddhism".

• Berzin, Alexander (November 2001). "Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan". Berzin Archives.
• Cousins, L. S. (1996). "The Dating of the Historical Buddha: A Review Article". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Series 3 (6.1): 57–63.
  doi:10.1017/S1356186300014760. Retrieved 2007-7-11. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help
  )
• Davidson, Ronald M. (2003). Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement. New York: Columbia University Press.
  ISBN 0231126190
  .
• ISBN 0-19-289223-1
  .
• Gombrich, Richard (ed.) (1984). The World of Buddhism. Thames & Hudson. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Harvey, Peter (1990). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge University Press.
  ISBN 0-52-131333-3
  .
• Lamotte, Étienne (trans. to French) (1976). Teaching of Vimalakirti. trans. Sara Boin. London: Pali Text Society. pp. XCIII.
  ISBN 0710085400
  .
• Skilton, Andrew (1997). A Concise History of Buddhism. Windhorse Publications.
  ISBN 0904766926
  .
• Williams, Paul (1989). Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations. London: Routledge.

Suggested Reading

• Armstrong, Karen (2001). Buddha. Penguin Books. p. 187.
  ISBN 0-14-303436-7
  .
• Buswell, Robert E. (ed.) (2003). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. MacMillan Reference Books.
  ISBN 978-0028657189. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help
  )
• Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) (2003). The Illustrated Guide to World Religions. Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 1-84483-125-6. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help
  )
• Dhammananda, K. Sri, What Buddhists Believe. Buddhist Missionary Society of Malaysia. (2002)
• Dickson, John (2004). A Spectator's Guide to World Religions. Blue Bottle Books.
• Donath, Dorothy C. (1971). Buddhism for the West: Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna; a comprehensive review of Buddhist history, philosophy, and teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present day. Julian Press.
  ISBN 0-07-017533-0
  .
• ISBN 0-86171-321-4. Also available on-line: [2] [3] [4]
• Juergensmeyer, Mark (2006). The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions. Oxford Handbooks in Religion and Theology. Oxford University Press.
  ISBN 978-0195137989
  .
• Lowenstein, Tom (1996). The Vision of the Buddha. Duncan Baird Publishers.
  ISBN 1-903296-91-9
  .
• Kohn, Michael H. (trans.) (1991). The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Shambhala.
  ISBN 0-87773-520-4
  .
• Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed), The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists, Ronald Press, New York, 1956; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; distibuted by Wisdom Books
• Nattier, Jan (2003). A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path according to The Inquiry of Ugra (Ugrapariprccha). University of Hawai'i Press.
  ISBN 0-8248-2607-8
  .
• Robinson, Richard H., and Johnson, Willard L. (1982). The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction. Wadsworth Publishing.
  ISBN 0-534-01027-X.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
  )
• Sinha, H.P. (1993). Bhāratīya Darshan kī rūprekhā (Features of Indian Philosophy). Motilal Banarasidas Publ.
  ISBN 81-208-2144-0
  .
• Smith, Huston (2003). Buddhism: A Concise Introduction. HarperSanFrancisco.
  ISBN 978-0060730673. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help
  )
• Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2001). Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha (3rd ed., rev.). {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help
  )
• ISBN 0-7679-0369-2
  .
• ISBN 0-271-00601-3. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help
  )
• ISBN 0-8021-3031-3
  .
• ISBN 0-7734-5985-5
  .
• Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page.
  The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra. (Nirvana Publications 1999-2000). {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
  )
• ISBN 0-86171-133-5
  .
• Wei, Wei Wu,"Why Lazarus Laughed: The Essential Doctrine Zen-Advaita-Tantra", Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, 1960. [5]
• Bibliotheca Indo Buddhica Series/ Delhi/ Indian Books Centre
• Jewels of the Doctrine (Buddhist Stories of the Thirteenth Century)/ Ranjini/ Sri Satguru Publications

Notes

1. ^ Chambers Dictionary, 2006; Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 2003; New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions, 1998; Dewey Decimal System of Book Classification; Robinson & Johnson, The Buddhist Religion; [1]]
2. Basic Points Unifying the Theravāda and the Mahāyāna
3. ^ For example: Dorothy Figen, Is Buddhism a Religion? http://www.buddhistinformation.com/is_buddhism_a_religion1.htm
4. ^ For example: Narada Thera, Buddhism in a Nutshell, http://www.buddhanet.net/nutshell03.htm
5. ^ This article primarily describes general Buddhist doctrines and history. For a more in-depth treatment regarding Buddhist religious institutions, see Schools of Buddhism; regarding Buddhism and philosophy, see Buddhist philosophy; and, regarding Buddhism and psychology, see Buddhism and psychology.
6. ^ For instance, see the UNESCO webpage entitled, "Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha". See also Gethin Foundations, p. 19, which states that in the mid-third century BCE the Emperor Ashoka determined that Lumbini was the Buddha's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "... this is where the Buddha, sage of the Śākyas, was born."
7. ^ For instance, Gethin Foundations, p. 14, states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain — a rājan — in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) on what is now the Indian-Nepalese border." However, Professor Gombrich (Theravada Buddhism, page 1) and the old but specialized study by Edward Thomas, The Life of the Buddha, ascribe the name Siddhattha/Siddhartha to later sources
8. ^ The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, by Edward Joseph Thomas
9. ^ A Sketch of the Buddha's Life Readings from the Pali Canon http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/buddha.html
10. ^ http://buddhism.about.com/library/blbudlifesights2.htm The Life of the Buddha: The Four Sights "On the first visit he encountered an old man. On the next excursion he encountered a sick man. On his third excursion, he encountered a corpse being carried to cremation. Such sights brought home to him the prevalence of suffering in the world and that he too was subject to old age, sickness and death...on his fourth excursion, however, he encountered a holy man or sadhu, apparently content and at peace with the world."
11. ^ http://www.wildmind.org/mantras/figures/shakyamuni/5 Wild mind Buddhist Meditation, The Buddha’s biography: Spiritual Quest and Awakening
12. ^ see: http://www.angelfire.com/electronic/bodhidharma/bodhi_tree.html The Bodhi Tree
13. ^ http://www.buddhamind.info/leftside/arty/bod-leaf.htm Bodhi leaf
14. ^ Skilton, Concise, pp 25
15. ^ Cousins, Dating.
16. ^ "the reputed place of Buddha's death and cremation,"Encyclopedia Britannica, Kusinagara
17. ^ see Sects and Sectarianism, Sujato bhikkhu, 2007. (non-for-profit publication available at Lulu.com, with [http://sectsandsectarianism.googlepages.com/conclusion online version)
18. ^ By several centuries after the death of the Buddha, the itinerant mendicants following his way had formed settled communities and had changed irrevocably their received methods of both teaching and praxis., Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 501
19. ^ (Harvey, 1990); (Gombrich,1984);

    Gethin (1998), pp. 1-2, identifies "three broad traditions" as: (1) "The Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism"; (2) "The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism"; and, (3) "The Tibetan tradition, also sometimes referred to as 'northern' Buddhism."

    Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled "The Buddhism of South Asia" (which pertains to Early Buddhism in India); and, Part Two is entitled "The Development of Buddhism Outside of India" with chapters on "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia," "Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area," "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West."

20. Tantric Buddhism
    .
21. ^ "Tibetan Buddhism". American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2004. Retrieved 2007-07-07.
22. ^ See e.g. the multi-dimensional classification in Encyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, 1987, volume 2, pages 440ff
23. ^ ^{a b} Adherants.com. "Major Religions Ranked By Size". Retrieved 2007-07-31.
24. ISBN 978-0-7394-7582-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help
    )
25. ^ Garfinkel, Perry (December 2005). "Buddha Rising". National Geographic: 88–109.
26. ^ See for example: http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1469959 Buddhas of the past and future
27. ^ See for example: http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html The Four Noble Truths
28. ISBN 0710213190
    .
29. ^ http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:489.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary
30. ^ http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.1:1:2598.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary
31. ^ http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.3:1:229.pali Pali Text Society Pali Dictionary
32. ^ An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich, 1992d). Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely use different metaphors for the experience. But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (= passion and hatred), with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. This interpretation ignores the third fire, delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as gnosis, Enlightenment. How Buddhism Began, Richard F. Gombrich, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997, p. 67
33. ^ ‘It is evident that the Hinayanists, either to popularize their religion or to interest the laity more in it, incorporated in their doctrines the conception of Bodhisattva and the practice of paramitas. This was effected by the production of new literature: the Jatakas and Avadanas.' Buddhist Sects in India, Nalinaksha Dutt, Motilal Banararsidass Publishers (Delhi), 2nd Edition, 1978, p. 251. The term 'Semi-Mahayana' occurs here as a subtitle.
34. ^ ‘[the Theravadins’] early literature did not refer to the paramitas.’ Buddhist Sects in India, Nalinaksha Dutt, Motilal Banararsidass Publishers (Delhi), 2nd Edition, 1978, Dutt, p.228
35. ^
    ISBN 1559391359
    .
36. ^ Kohn, Shambhala, pp 131, 143
37. ^ Bhikku, Thanissaro (2001). "Refuge". An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha. Access to Insight.
38. MN 72 (Thanissaro, 1997). For further discussion of the context in which these statements was made, see Thanissaro (2004)
    .
39. ^ The Sovereign All-Creating Mind tr. by E.K. Neumaier-Dargyay, pp. 111–112.
40. ^ , Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. His main views and arguments can be found in his book Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, University of Hawai'i Press
41. ^ Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, page 20
42. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 32
43. ^ Nakamura, Indian Buddhism, originally published in Japan, 1980; reprinted Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1987, 1989; page 27
44. ^ op. cit., pages 57-60
45. ^ Lopez, Buddhism in Practice, Princeton University Press, 1995, page 4
46. ^ ‘’in the name of that extreme caution which some suppose to be the hallmark of the sound academic, some scholars have claimed that we do not know what the Buddha taught and cannot now find out.’’ AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition, preface to 1st edition.
47. ^ Thera, Piyadassi (1999). "Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta". The Book of Protection. Buddhist Publication Society. In the Buddha's first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, he talks about the Middle Way, the Noble Eightfold Path and the Four Noble Truths.
48. ^ Harvey, Introduction, pp 47
49. ISBN 0140514805
    .,pages 393f
50. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 92
51. ^ Janice J. Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, 1977. Mahāsāṅghika Origins: the beginnings of Buddhist sectarianism in History of Religions, Vol. 16, pp. 237-272
52. ^ Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, page 74
53. ^ Williams, Paul (1989). Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations. London: Routledge., pages 20f
54. ISBN 0710085400
    .
55. ISBN 0231126190
    .
56. ^ for example: A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edtion (2000), page 4
57. ^ A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edtion (2000)

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