User:Pseudo-Richard/Catholic Church/History

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Early Christianity - Roman Empire

Proposal A

According to its doctrine, the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus Christ.

bishops since then are considered the successors to the apostles.[3]

There is a tradition about the early history of the Church, traceable from late antiquity. which places Peter in Rome, where he founded a church and served as the first bishop of the

See of Rome, consecrating Linus as his successor and beginning the line of Popes.[4] The only element of this which the Catholic Encyclopedia presents as historical is Peter's martyrdom at Rome.[5]

Some historians of Christianity assert that the Catholic Church can be traced to Jesus's consecration of Peter,[6][7] some that Jesus did not found a church in his lifetime but provided a framework of beliefs,[8] while others do not make a judgement about whether or not the Church was founded by Jesus but disagree with the traditional view that the papacy originated with Peter. These assert that Rome may not have had a bishop until after the apostolic age and suggest the papal office may have been superimposed by the traditional narrative upon the primitive church.[9]

During the 1st century, the Apostles traveled around the Mediterranean region founding the first Christian communities,[10] over 40 of which had been established by the year 100.[11] By 58 AD, a large Christian community existed in Rome.[12] The New Testament gospels indicate that the earliest Christians continued to observe several traditional Jewish pieties.[13] Jesus also directed the evangelization of non-Jewish peoples, prompting circumcision controversies at the Council of Jerusalem. At this council, Paul argued that circumcision was no longer necessary. This position was supported widely and was summarized in a letter circulated in Antioch.[14]

Constantine I
, believed Christ had helped him win Rome. Soon Christianity became the official state religion

Early Christianity accepted several Roman practices, such as slavery, campaigning primarily for humane treatment of slaves but also admonishing slaves to behave appropriately towards their masters.[15] Early Christians refused to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods or to worship Roman rulers as gods and were thus subject to persecution.[16] The first case of imperially-sponsored persecution of Christians occurred in 1st century Rome under Nero. Further such persecutions occurred under various emperors until the great persecution of Diocletian and Galerius, seen as a final attempt to wipe out Christianity.[17]

Nevertheless, the early Church continued to spread, and developed both in doctrinal and structural ways. From as early as the 1st century, the Church of Rome was recognized as a doctrinal authority because it was believed that the Apostles

Donatist controversy.[22]

Christianity was legalized in 313 under

Council of Ephesus in 431[29] and the Council of Chalcedon in 451 defined the relationship of Christ's divine and human natures, leading to splits with the Nestorians and Monophysites.[21]

Constantine moved the imperial capital to Constantinople, and the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451) elevated the See of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the bishop of Rome".[30] From circa 350 to circa 500, the bishops, or popes, of Rome steadily increased in authority.[12] Rome had particular prominence over the other dioceses: it was considered the see of Peter and Paul, it was located in the capital of the Western Roman Empire, it was wealthy and known for supporting other churches, and church scholars wanted the Roman bishop's support in doctrinal disputes.[31]

Proposal B

The Catholic Church considers

Constantine's Edict of Milan.[23]

Early Christians were martyred as entertainment in the Colosseum in Rome. Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1883.

During this era of persecution, the early Church evolved both in doctrinal and structural ways. The apostles convened the first Church council, the

Gentiles.[34] While competing forms of Christianity emerged early, the Roman Church retained this practice of meeting in ecumenical councils to ensure that any internal doctrinal differences were quickly resolved, which facilitated broad doctrinal unity within the mainstream churches.[21][35] From as early as the first century, the Church of Rome was recognized as a doctrinal authority because it was believed that the Apostles Peter and Paul had led the Church there.[36][18][37] The concept of the primacy of the Roman bishop over other churches was increasingly recognized by the church at large from at least the second century.[38][22]
From the year 100 onward, teachers like
Pope Clement I, Justin Martyr, Augustine of Hippo.[20] In 325, the First Council of Nicaea convened in response to the threat of Arianism, formulated the Nicene Creed as a basic statement of Christian belief,[26] and divided the church into geographical and administrative areas called dioceses.[27] Although this council sanctioned the primacy of three dioceses—Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch—Rome had certain qualities that destined it for particular prominence; it was considered the see of Peter and Paul, it was located in the capital of the empire, church scholars were desirous of obtaining the Roman bishop's support in doctrinal disputes, and it was wealthy and known for supporting other churches around the world.[31]

Emperor Constantine I commissioned the

Monophysites.[21] The Council of Chalcedon also elevated the See of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the bishop of Rome".[41][30]

Differences

NB: This section should be reserved for differences between Proposals A, B and C. All discussion of the merits of each section should be conducted in the section below.

Discussion

Middle Ages

After Roman collapse in the West, the Catholic faith competed with

Cyrillic alphabet.[49] While Christianity continued to expand in Europe, Islam presented a significant military threat to Western Christendom.[50] By 715, Muslim armies had conquered much of the Southern Mediterranean.[51]

From the 8th century,

Photios of Constantinople.[55] Further disagreements led to Pope and Patriarch excommunicating each other in 1054, commonly considered the date of the East–West Schism.[56] The Western branch of Christianity remained in communion with the Pope and remained a part of the Catholic Church, while the Eastern (Greek) branch that rejected the papal claims became known as the Eastern Orthodox churches.[57] Efforts to mend the rift were attempted at the Second Council of Lyon in 1274 and Council of Florence in 1439. While in each case the Eastern Emperor and Eastern Patriarch both agreed to the reunion,[58] neither council changed the attitudes of the Eastern Churches at large, and the schism remained.[59]

The Cluniac reform of monasteries that had begun in 910 sparked widespread monastic growth and renewal.[60] Monasteries introduced new technologies and crops, fostered the creation and preservation of literature and promoted economic growth. Monasteries, convents and cathedrals still operated virtually all schools and libraries.[61] Despite a church ban on the practice of usury the larger abbeys functioned as sources for economic credit.[62] The 11th and 12th century saw internal efforts to reform the church. The college of cardinals in 1059 was created to free papal elections from interference by Emperor and nobility. Lay investiture of bishops, a source of rulers' dominance over the Church, was attacked by reformers and under Pope Gregory VII, erupted into the Investiture Controversy between Pope and Emperor. The matter was eventually settled with the Concordat of Worms in 1122 where it was agreed that bishops would be selected in accordance with Church law.[63]

Colored painting showing a large congregation of bishops listening to the Pope
Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont (1095), where he preached the First Crusade; later manuscript illumination of c. 1490.

In 1095,

consecrated religious life into urban settings.[69] These orders also played a large role in the development of cathedral schools into universities, the direct ancestors of the modern Western institutions.[70] Notable scholastic theologians such as the Dominican Thomas Aquinas worked at these universities, and his Summa Theologica was a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of Aristotelian thought and Christianity.[71]

Twelfth century France witnessed the emergence of

papal inquisition to prevent further massacres and to root out the remaining Cathars.[73] Formalized under Gregory IX, this Medieval inquisition found guilty an average of three people per year for heresy.[68]

In the 14th century, the Papacy came under French dominance, with Clement V in 1305 moving to Avignon.[74] The Avignon Papacy ended in 1376 when the Pope returned to Rome[75] but was soon followed in 1378 by the 38-year-long Western schism with separate claimants to the papacy in Rome, Avignon and (after 1409) Pisa, backed by conflicting secular rulers.[75] The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the Council of Constance where the three claimants either resigned or were deposed and held a new election naming Martin V Pope.[76]

The Church was the dominant influence on the development of Western art in these times, overseeing the rise of Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance styles of art and architecture.[77] Renaissance artists such as Raphael, Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Bernini, Botticelli, Fra Angelico, Tintoretto, Caravaggio, and Titian, were among a multitude of artists sponsored by the Church.[78] In music, Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern Western musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church,[79] and an enormous body of religious music has been composed for it through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of European classical music, and its many derivatives.[80]

Reformation and Counter-Reformation

Current version

Main articles:
Protestant Reformation, English Reformation, Counter-Reformation, and European wars of religion

The

Protestant Reformations resulted in the separation of Anglicans and Protestants from the Catholic Church. In response, the Vatican initiated a series of reforms in the areas of doctrine, ecclesiastical structure, religious orders, spiritual movements and politics. The ensuing tensions between Catholics and Protestants and the perceived need for uniformity of faith helped fuel the European wars of religion
.

Protestant Reformation.[31]

In Germany, the reformation led to a nine-year war between the Protestant

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre marked the turning point in this war.[86] Survivors regrouped under Henry of Navarre who became Catholic and began the first experiment in religious toleration with his 1598 Edict of Nantes.[86] This Edict, which granted civil and religious toleration to Protestants, was hesitantly accepted by Pope Clement VIII.[87]

The

Elizabeth I later restored a separate church that outlawed Catholic priests[90] and prevented Catholics from educating their children and taking part in political life[91] until new laws were passed in 1778.[92]

The

Teresa of Avila, Francis de Sales and Philip Neri spawned new schools of spirituality within the Church.[98]

Toward the latter part of the 17th century, Pope Innocent XI reformed abuses that were occurring in the Church's hierarchy, including simony, nepotism and the lavish papal expenditures that had caused him to inherit a large papal debt.[99] He promoted missionary activity, tried to unite Europe against the Turkish invasion, prevented influential Catholic rulers (including the Emperor) from marrying Protestants but strongly condemned religious persecution.[99]

Early modern period

Main article: Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery

The Age of Discovery saw the expansion of Western European power and culture and, given the prominent role of Spain and Portugal, the spreading of Catholicism to the Americas and Asia by explorers and missionaries.

Antonio de Montesinos, a Dominican friar, openly rebuked the Spanish rulers of Hispaniola in 1511 for their cruelty and tyranny in dealing with the American natives.[103] King Ferdinand enacted the Laws of Burgos and Valladolid in response. The issue resulted in a crisis of conscience in 16th-century Spain.[104] and, through the writings of Catholic clergy such as Bartolomé de Las Casas and Francisco de Vitoria, led to debate on the nature of human rights[105] and to the birth of modern international law.[106] Enforcement of these laws was lax, and some historians blame the Church for not doing enough to liberate the Indians; others point to the Church as the only voice raised on behalf of indigenous peoples.[107]

In 1521 the Portuguese explorer

reductions
.

From the 17th century onward,

revocation of the Edict of Nantes by King Louis XIV which ended a century-long policy of religious toleration of Protestant Huguenots
.

The

Napoleonic wars brought Catholic revival and the return of the Papal States.[119]

In Latin America, a succession of anti-clerical regimes came to power beginning in the 1830s.[120] Church properties were confiscated, bishoprics left vacant, religious orders suppressed,[121] the collection of clerical tithes ended,[122] and clerical dress in public prohibited.[123]

In Supremo Apostolatus, and approved the ordination of native clergy in the face of government racism.[124]

Industrial age

Current version

In response to the social challenges of the

Roman Question,[128] a territorial dispute between the papacy and the Italian government that was not resolved until the 1929 Lateran Treaty granted sovereignty to the Holy See over Vatican City.[129] At the end of the 19th century, Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa and built schools, hospitals, monasteries and churches.[130]

The 20th century saw the rise of various politically

Nationalist forces against the Popular Front government,[135] citing Republican violence directed against the Church.[136] Pope Pius XI referred to these three countries as a "Terrible Triangle" and the failure to protest in Europe and the United States as a Conspiracy of Silence
.

After violations of the 1933

antisemitism[143] and Pius himself of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.[144] Debate over the validity of these criticisms continues to this day.[142]

Postwar Communist governments in Eastern Europe severely restricted religious freedoms.[

Patriotic Church whose unilaterally appointed bishops were initially rejected by Rome before many of them were accepted.[148] The Cultural Revolution of the 1960s led to the closure of all religious establishments. When Chinese churches eventually reopened they remained under the control of the Patriotic Church. Many Catholic pastors and priests continued to be sent to prison for refusing to renounce allegiance to Rome.[149]

Contemporary

Current version

The Second Vatican Council initiated in 1962 was described by its advocates as an "opening of the windows".[150] It led to changes in liturgy within the Latin Church, focus of its mission and a redefinition of ecumenism, particularly dialogue with the Orthodox Church and Protestants.[151]

Reception of the council has formed the basis of multifaceted internal positions within the Church since then. A so-called

Traditionalist Catholics represented by figures such as Archbishop Lefebvre strongly criticized the council arguing that it defiled the sanctity of the Latin Mass, promoted religious indifferentism towards "false religions" and compromised orthodox Catholic dogma and tradition. A group positioned in between, represented by theologians such as Communio including Pope Benedict XVI
, hold that the council was ultimately positive but there were abuses in interpretation.

The Church has consistently continued to uphold its

permanent observer status at the United Nations.[158]

  1. ^ a b Kreeft, p. 98, quote "The fundamental reason for being a Catholic is the historical fact that the Catholic Church was founded by Christ, was God's invention, not man's ...As the Father gave authority to Christ (Jn 5:22; Mt 28:18–20), Christ passed it on to his apostles (Lk 10:16), and they passed it on to the successors they appointed as bishops."
  2. ^ Paul VI, Pope (1964). "Lumen Gentium". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
  3. ^ Barry, p. 46.
  4. ^ Franzen pp. 17–18.
  5. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia (and New Catholic Encyclopedia); articles on "Peter"
  6. ^ Orlandis, p. 11 quote "But Jesus not only founded a religion – Christianity; he founded a Church. ... The Church was grounded on the Apostle Peter to whom Christ promised the primacy – 'and on this rock I will build my Church (Mt 16:18)'".
  7. ^ Vidmar, pp. 39-40.
  8. ^ Kung, pp. 4–5
  9. ^ See, among others:
    • Bokenkotter, p. 30.
    • Kelly, p. 6.
    • Duffy, paperback edition p. 13, quote "There is no sure way to settle on a date by which the office of ruling bishop had emerged in Rome, and so to name the first Pope, but the process was certainly complete by the time of Anicetus in the mid-150s, when Polycarp, the aged Bishop of Smyrna, visited Rome, and he and Anicetus debated amicably the question of the date of Easter."
  10. ^ a b Bokenkotter, p. 18. Cite error: The named reference "Bokenkotter18" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  11. ^ a b Wilken, p. 281. Cite error: The named reference "Wilken281" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  12. ^ a b "Rome (early Christian)." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  13. ^ White, p. 127.
  14. ^ McGrath, pp. 174–175.
  15. ^ Stark, Rodney (2003-07-01). "The Truth About the Catholic Church and Slavery". Christianity Today. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  16. ^ a b Wilken, p. 282.
  17. ^ a b Collins, p. 53–55.
  18. ^ a b Chadwick, Henry p. 361. Cite error: The named reference "McManners361" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  19. ^ a b Davidson, p. 169, p. 181. Cite error: The named reference "Davidson169" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  20. ^ a b Norman, pp. 27–28. Cite error: The named reference "Norman27" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  21. ^ a b c d Chadwick, Henry p. 371. Cite error: The named reference "McManners371" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  22. ^ a b Schatz, pp. 9–20. Cite error: The named reference "Schatz9" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  23. ^ a b Davidson, p. 341.
  24. ^ a b Wilken, p. 286.
  25. ^ M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopedia, Volume 7, page 45a.
  26. ^ a b Herring, p. 60.
  27. ^ a b Wilken, p. 283. Cite error: The named reference "Hitchcock 283" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  28. ^ a b Collins, pp. 61–62. Cite error: The named reference "StoChris61" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  29. ^ a b Duffy, p. 35.
  30. ^ a b Noble, p. 214.
  31. ^ a b c Bokenkotter, pp. 35–36. Cite error: The named reference "Bokenkotter223" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  32. ^ a b Vidmar, p. 19–20.
  33. ^ Schreck, p. 130.
  34. ^ Chadwick, Henry p. 37, quote: "In Acts 15 scripture recorded the apostles meeting in synod to reach a common policy about the Gentile mission."
  35. ^ Davidson, p. 155, quote: "For all the scattered nature of the churches, a very large number of believers in apostolic times lived no more than a week or so's travel from one of the main hubs of the Christian movement: Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome, Ephesus, Corinth or Philippi. Communities received regular visits from itinerant teachers and leaders. This unity was focussed upon the essentials of belief in Jesus.
  36. ^ Cite error: The named reference Norman11 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  37. ^ Vidmar, p. 40–42, quote: "Several pieces of evidence indicate that the Bishop of Rome even after Peter held some sort of preeminence among other bishops. ...(lists several historical documents) ... None of these examples, taken by themselves, would be sufficient to prove the primacy of the successors of Peter and Paul. Taken together, however, they point to a Roman authority which was recognized in the early church as going beyond that of other churches."
  38. ^ Barker, p. 846.
  39. ^ Duffy, p. 18.
  40. ^ Wilken, p. 284.
  41. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 84–93.
  42. ^ Le Goff, pp. 5–20.
  43. ^ a b Le Goff, p. 21.
  44. ^ Woods, p. 27.
  45. ^ Le Goff, p. 120.
  46. ^ Duffy, pp. 50–52.
  47. ^ a b Vidmar, pp. 82–83, quote: "How it [monasticism] came to Ireland is a matter of some debate. The liturgical and literary evidence is strong that it came directly from Egypt without the moderating influence of the Roman Church."
  48. ^ Mayr-Harting, pp. 92–94.
  49. ^ Johnson, p. 18.
  50. ^ Johns, p. 166
  51. ^ Vidmar, p. 94.
  52. ^ Duffy, p. 63, p. 74.
  53. ^ Duffy p.63
  54. ^ Duffy, p. 78.
  55. ^ Duffy, pp. 81–82.
  56. ^ Duffy, p. 91.
  57. ^ Collins, p. 103.
  58. ^ Duffy, p. 119, p. 131.
  59. ^ a b Bokenkotter, pp. 140–141.
  60. ^ Duffy, pp. 88–89.
  61. ^ Le Goff, pp. 80–82.
  62. ^ Le Goff, p. 225.
  63. ^ Noble, pp. 286–287.
  64. ^ Riley-Smith, p. 8.
  65. ^ Le Goff, pp. 65–67.
  66. ^ Tyerman, pp. 525–560.
  67. ^ a b Norman, pp. 62–65.
  68. ^ a b Norman, p. 93.
  69. ^ Le Goff, p. 87.
  70. ^ Woods, pp. 44–48.
  71. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 158–159.
  72. ^ Henry Charles Lea, 'A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages', Volume 1, (1888), p. 145, quote: "The murder of the legate Pierre de Castelnau sent a thrill of horror throughout Christendom...Of its details, however, the accounts are so contradictory that it is impossible to speak of it with precision."
  73. ^ a b Morris, p. 214
  74. ^ Duffy, p. 122.
  75. ^ a b Morris, p. 232.
  76. ^ Collinson, p. 240.
  77. ^ Woods, pp. 115–27.
  78. ^ Duffy, p. 133.
  79. ^ Hall, p. 100.
  80. ^ a b Murray, p. 45.
  81. ^ Norman, p. 86.
  82. ^ Bokenkotter, p.202
  83. ^ Duffy, p. 149.
  84. ^ a b Bokenkotter, p. 215.
  85. ^ Vidmar, p.233
  86. ^ a b Bokenkotter, p. 233.
  87. ^ Duffy, pp. 177–178.
  88. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 235–237.
  89. ^ Schama, pp. 309–311.
  90. ^ Noble, p. 519.
  91. ^ Solt, p. 149
  92. ^ Judith F. Champ, 'Catholicism', in John Cannon (ed.), The Oxford Companion to British History, rev. ed. (Oxford: University Press, 2002), p. 176.
  93. ^ a b Bokenkotter, pp. 242–244.
  94. ^ Lahey, p. 1125.
  95. ^ "Brief Overview of the Administrative History of the Holy See". University of Michigan. 5 July 2007. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
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  97. ^ Johnson, p. 87.
  98. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 251.
  99. ^ a b Duffy, pp. 188–191.
  100. ^ Koschorke, p. 13, p. 283.
  101. ^ Hastings (1994), p. 72.
  102. ^ Noble, pp. 450–451.
  103. ^ Koschorke, p. 287.
  104. ^ Johansen, p. 109, p. 110, quote: "In the Americas, the Catholic priest Bartolomé de las Casas avidly encouraged enquiries into the Spanish conquest's many cruelties. Las Casas chronicled Spanish brutality against the Native peoples in excruciating detail."
  105. ^ Koschorke, p.287
  106. ^ Chadwick, Owen, p. 327.
  107. ^ Dussel, p. 45, pp. 52–53, quote: "The missionary Church opposed this state of affairs from the beginning, and nearly everything positive that was done for the benefit of the indigenous peoples resulted from the call and clamor of the missionaries. The fact remained, however, that widespread injustice was extremely difficult to uproot ... Even more important than Bartolomé de Las Casas was the Bishop of Nicaragua, Antonio de Valdeviso, who ultimately suffered martyrdom for his defense of the Indian."
  108. ^ Koschorke, p. 21.
  109. ^ Koschorke, p. 3, p. 17.
  110. ^ Koschorke, pp. 31–32.
  111. ^ McManners, p. 318.
  112. ^ McManners, p. 328.
  113. ^ Duffy, p. 193.
  114. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 295.
  115. ^ Norman, pp. 111–112.
  116. ^ a b Pollard, pp. 7–8.
  117. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 283–285.
  118. ^ Collins, p. 176.
  119. ^ Duffy, pp. 214–216.
  120. ^ Stacy, p. 139.
  121. ISBN 0521232252
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  122. ISBN 9781403962584
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  123. ISBN 0-521-58120. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help
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  124. ^ Duffy, p. 221.
  125. ^ Duffy, p. 240.
  126. ^ Leith, p. 143.
  127. ^ Fahlbusch, p. 729.
  128. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 306–307.
  129. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 386–387.
  130. ^ Hastings, pp. 397–410.
  131. ^ a b Chadwick, Owen, pp. 264–265.
  132. ^ Scheina, p. 33.
  133. ^ Riasanovsky 617
  134. ^ Riasanovsky 634
  135. ISBN 0300122829
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  136. ISBN 0-7876-4017-4. {{cite book}}: Text "volume 13" ignored (help
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  137. ^ Rhodes, p. 182-183
  138. ^ Rhodes, p. 197
  139. ^ Rhodes, p. 204-205
  140. ^ Cook, p. 983
  141. ^ Bokenkotter p. 192
  142. ^ a b Deák, p. 182.
  143. ^ Eakin, Emily (1 September 2001). "New Accusations Of a Vatican Role In Anti-Semitism; Battle Lines Were Drawn After Beatification of Pope Pius IX". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
  144. ^ Phayer, pp. 50–57
  145. ^ Smith, Craig (10 January 2007). "In Poland, New Wave of Charges Against Clerics". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 May 2008.
  146. ^ "Pope Stared Down Communism in Homeland – and Won". CBC News. April 2005. Retrieved 31 January 2008.
  147. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 356–358.
  148. ^ "China installs Pope-backed bishop", BBC News 21 Sept 2007, retrieved 08 Sept 2009
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  150. ^ Duffy, pp. 270–276.
  151. ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p.272, p. 274.
  152. ^ Bauckham, p. 373.
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  155. ^ Bruni, p. 336.
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  158. ISBN 978-1884964022
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