Scholasticism
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Scholasticism was a
Scholasticism is a method of learning more than a philosophy or a theology, since it places a strong emphasis on
Scholasticism was initially a program conducted by medieval Christian thinkers attempting to harmonize the various authorities of their own tradition, and to reconcile Christian theology with classical and late antiquity philosophy, especially that of Aristotle but also of Neoplatonism.[5] The Scholastics, also known as Schoolmen,[6][7] included as its main figures Anselm of Canterbury ("the father of scholasticism"[8]), Peter Abelard, Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Bonaventure, and Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas's masterwork Summa Theologica (1265–1274) is considered to be the pinnacle of scholastic, medieval, and Christian philosophy;[9] it began while Aquinas was regent master at the studium provinciale of Santa Sabina in Rome, the forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. Important work in the scholastic tradition has been carried on well past Aquinas's time, such as English scholastics Robert Grosseteste and his student Roger Bacon, and for instance by Francisco Suárez and Luis de Molina, and also among Lutheran and Reformed thinkers.
Etymology
The terms "scholastic" and "scholasticism" derive from the Latin word scholasticus, the Latinized form of the Greek σχολαστικός (scholastikos), an adjective derived from σχολή (scholē), "school".[10] Scholasticus means "of or pertaining to schools". The "scholastics" were, roughly, "schoolmen".
History
The foundations of Christian scholasticism were laid by
Early Scholasticism
The first significant renewal of learning in the West came with the
During this period, knowledge of Ancient Greek had vanished in the West except in Ireland, where its teaching and use was widely dispersed in the
The other three founders of scholasticism were the 11th-century scholars
This period saw the beginning of the "
At the same time,
In the early 13th Century, a syndicate of priests and scholars collaborated and sketched a rough draft of a raw market economy. These scholars and priests fostered Christianity and addressed the philosophical issues of an early economic thought. Christianity being the fundamental faith that shaped moral attitudes of these groups was primarily transitioned from the patristic Christology. Leinsle (2010)[21] confirms the permeation of the patristic Christology into the Scholastic theology by arguing that medieval theology did not develop itself through philosophical contact. It adopted patristic culture and matured its way through the medieval age.
The early set of rules for trade were first introduced by Christian theologians. Theologians had spiritual beliefs with morals driven by religion. Novikoff (2012)[22] in his narrative describes the belief system of the Scholastics. He elaborates that scholastics adopted their moral and ethical behaviors from the early theologians. Early theologians, mainly Christians accepted certain set of rules from Christian Bible as their model of outlook. Spiegel (1991)[23] highlights that scholastics economic thought had its principle sources in the Bible. He further emphasizes on the teachings and writings of the Father of the Church which designed the groundwork for exercising economic and moral thoughts. Later, in the ages, the scholastics used the writings of Aristotle to shape their philosophical perspective. Greek Philosophy was deemed foundation for early moral principles which the scholastics exercised. Preaching of such principles was mainly transitioned from Italian to European localities. Greek philosophy became the initiating stance of high scholasticism.
High Scholasticism
The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally seen as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the
By contrast, the Dominican order, a teaching order founded by
Spanish Scholasticism
Late Scholasticism
Protestant Scholasticism
Lutheran Scholasticism
Reformed Scholasticism
Following the Reformation,
Neo-Scholasticism
The revival and development from the second half of the 19th century of medieval scholastic philosophy is sometimes called neo-Thomism.[30]
Thomistic Scholasticism
As J. A. Weisheipl
Thomistic scholasticism or scholastic
Thomistic scholasticism in the English speaking world went into decline in the 1970s when the Thomistic revival that had been spearheaded by Jacques Maritain, Étienne Gilson, and others, diminished in influence. Partly, this was because this branch of Thomism had become a quest to understand the historical Aquinas after the Second Vatican Council.
Analytical Scholasticism
A renewed interest in the "scholastic" way of doing philosophy has recently awoken in the confines of the
Scholastic method
Cornelius O'Boyle explained that Scholasticism focuses on how to acquire knowledge and how to communicate effectively so that it may be acquired by others. It was thought that the best way to achieve this was by replicating the discovery process (modus inveniendi).[38]
The scholasticists would choose a book by a renowned scholar,
Scholastic instruction
Scholastic instruction consisted of several elements. The first was the lectio: a teacher would read an authoritative text followed by a commentary, but no questions were permitted. This was followed by the meditatio (meditation or reflection) in which students reflected on and appropriated the text. Finally, in the quaestio students could ask questions (quaestiones) that might have occurred to them during meditatio. Eventually the discussion of questiones became a method of inquiry apart from the lectio and independent of authoritative texts. Disputationes were arranged to resolve controversial quaestiones.[40]
Questions to be disputed were ordinarily announced beforehand, but students could propose a question to the teacher unannounced – disputationes de quodlibet. In this case, the teacher responded and the students rebutted; on the following day the teacher, having used notes taken during the disputation, summarised all arguments and presented his final position, riposting all rebuttals.[39][41]
The quaestio method of reasoning was initially used especially when two authoritative texts seemed to contradict one another. Two contradictory propositions would be considered in the form of an either/or question, and each part of the question would have to be approved (sic) or denied (non). Arguments for the position taken would be presented in turn, followed by arguments against the position, and finally the arguments against would be refuted. This method forced scholars to consider opposing viewpoints and defend their own arguments against them.[42]
See also
- Actus primus
- Allegory in the Middle Ages
- Aristotelianism
- Casuistry
- History of science in the Middle Ages
- Medieval philosophy
- Nominalism
- Pardes (Jewish exegesis)
- Renaissance of the 12th century
- Scotism
References
- ^ See Steven P. Marone, "Medieval philosophy in context" in A. S. McGrade, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). On the difference between scholastic and medieval monastic postures towards learning, see Jean Leclercq, The Love of Learning and the Desire for God (New York: Fordham University Press, 1970) esp. 89; 238ff.
- ^ Gracia, Jorge JE, and Timothy B. Noone, eds. A companion to philosophy in the middle ages. John Wiley & Sons, 2008, 55–64
- ^ a b Patte, Daniel. The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity. Ed. Daniel Patte. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010, 11132-1133
- ^ Grant, Edward. God and Reason in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2004, 159
- on Muslim philosophers. In the case of Aquinas, for instance, see Jan Aertsen, "Aquinas' philosophy in its historical setting" in The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas, ed. Norman Kretzmann and Eleonore Stump (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Jean Leclerq, The Love of Learning and the Desire for God (New York: Fordham University Press, 1970).
- ^ "Schoolmen". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
- ISSN 0026-8232. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
- ^ Grant, Edward. God and Reason in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2004, 56
- ISBN 978-0-268-01740-8.
- Perseus Project.
- ^ Winter, Tim J. "Introduction." Introduction. The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008. 4–5. Print.
- ISBN 1438109075
- ^ Colish, Marcia L. Medieval foundations of the western intellectual tradition, 400–1400. Yale University Press, 1999, 66–67
- ^ Sandys, John Edwin (1903). A History of Classical Scholarship. Cambridge University Press. p. 438.
- ^ a b c "John Scottus Eriugena". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. 17 October 2004. Retrieved 21 July 2008.
- ^ a b Toman 2007, p. 10: "Abelard himself was ... together with John Scotus Erigena (9th century), and Lanfranc and Anselm of Canterbury (both 11th century), one of the founders of scholasticism."
- ^ Lindberg 1978, pp. 60–61.
- ^ a b Grant, Edward, and Emeritus Edward Grant. The foundations of modern science in the Middle Ages: their religious, institutional and intellectual contexts. Cambridge University Press, 1996, 23–28
- ^ Clagett 1982, p. 356.
- ^ Hoffecker, Andrew. "Peter Lombard, Master of the Sentences". Ligonier Ministries.
- OCLC 1303318773.
- S2CID 163903902.
- ISBN 978-0-333-55177-6, retrieved 15 April 2022
- ^ Lindberg 1978, pp. 70–72.
- ^ Hammond, Jay, Wayne Hellmann, and Jared Goff, eds. A companion to Bonaventure. Brill, 2014, 122
- ^ Evans, Gillian Rosemary. Fifty key medieval thinkers. Routledge, 2002, 93–93, 147–149, 164–169
- ^ Gracia, Jorge JE, and Timothy B. Noone, eds. A companion to philosophy in the middle ages. John Wiley & Sons, 2008, 353–369, 494–503, 696–712
- ^ Hannam, James. The genesis of science: How the Christian Middle Ages launched the scientific revolution. Simon and Schuster, 2011, 90–93
- ^ Douglass, Jane Dempsey, et al. The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin. Cambridge University Press, 2004, 227–228
- ^ Edward Feser (15 October 2009). "The Thomistic tradition, Part I (archived copy)". Archived from the original on 29 November 2010. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
- ^ Weisheipl, James (1962). "The Revival of Thomism: An Historical Survey". Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 21 August 2013.
- ^ "Edward Feser: The Thomistic tradition, Part I". edwardfeser.blogspot.com. 15 October 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2013.
- ^ Vanni Rovighi, Sofia. Treccani Encyclopedia./ Accessed 17 August 2013
- ^ GIACON, Carlo. Treccani Encyclopedia./ Accessed 9 April 2013
- ^ See Rizzello, Raffaele (1999). "Il Progetto Tommaso". In Giacomo Grasso, O.P.; Stefano Serafini (eds.). Vita quaerens intellectum. Rome: Millennium Romae. pp. 157–161. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
- ISBN 0754634388.
- S2CID 244179976– via Taylor & Francis Group.
- OCLC 39655867.
- ^ a b Colish, Marcia L. Medieval foundations of the western intellectual tradition, 400–1400. Yale University Press, 1999, 265–273
- ^ van Asselt 2011, p. 59.
- ^ van Asselt 2011, p. 60.
- ^ van Asselt 2011, pp. 61–62.
Primary sources
- Hyman, J.; Walsh, J. J., eds. (1973). Philosophy in the Middle Ages. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-0-915144-05-1.
- Schoedinger, Andrew B., ed. (1996). Readings in Medieval Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509293-6.
Secondary sources
- ISBN 978-1-60178-121-5.
- Clagett, Marshall (1982). "William of Moerbeke: Translator of Archimedes". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 126 (5): 356–366. JSTOR 986212.
- Decock, W. (2013), Theologians and Contract Law: The Moral Transformation of the Ius Commune (c. 1500–1650), Leiden/Boston, Brill/Nijhoff, ISBN 978-90-04-23284-6.
- Fryde, E., The Early Palaeologan Renaissance, Brill 2000.
- Gallatin, Harlie Kay (2001). "Medieval Intellectual Life and Christianity". Archived from the original on 1 February 2009.
- Gracia, J. G. and Noone, T. B., eds., (2003) A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages. London: Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-21672-3
- McGrade, A. S., ed., (2003) The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Lindberg, David C. (1978). Science in the Middle Ages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48232-3.
- Maurer, Armand A. (1982). Medieval Philosophy (2nd ed.). Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. ISBN 978-0-88844-704-3.
- Toman, Rolf (2007). The Art of Gothic: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting. photography by Achim Bednorz. ISBN 978-3-8331-4676-3.
Further reading
- Trueman, Carl R. and R. Scott Clark, jt. eds. (1999). Protestant Scholasticism: Essays in Reassessment. Carlisle, Eng.: Paternoster Press. ISBN 0-85364-853-0
- Rexroth, Frank (2023). Knowledge True and Useful: A Cultural History of Early Scholasticism. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-1-5128-2471-1.
External links
- Scholasticon by Jacob Schmutz
- Medieval Philosophy Electronic Resources
- "Scholasticism". In Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- Scholasticism Joseph Rickaby, (1908), 121 pp. (also at googlebooks)
- Scholasticism in The Catholic Encyclopedia
- Yahoo! directory category: Scholasticism
- The genius of the scholastics and the orbit of Aristotle, article by James Franklin on the influence of scholasticism on later thought
- Medieval Philosophy, Universities and the Church by James Hannam
- (in German) ALCUIN – Regensburger Infothek der Scholastik – Huge database with information on biography, text chronology, editions.