Vegetable oil

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For other uses, see Vegetable oil (disambiguation).
Plant oils
Olive oil
Types
Uses
Components
A bottle of peanut oil

Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are

seed oils, or fats from seeds. Olive oil, palm oil, and rice bran oil are examples of fats from other parts of plants. In common usage, vegetable oil may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature.[2][3]
Vegetable oils are usually edible.

History

In antiquity

Olive oil has been a part of human culture for millennia.

mummification process.[6]

Vegetable oils have been used as lighting fuel for lamps, cooking, medicine and lubrication.[citation needed] Palm oil has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe. It became highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution.[7]

Modern history

Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers' (now Unilever) "Sunlight", and B. J. Johnson Company's (now Colgate-Palmolive) "Palmolive,"[8] and by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries.[9]

In 1780,

vegetable shortening.[citation needed
]

In the United States,

Ginning mills were happy to have someone haul away the cotton seeds. The extracted oil was refined and partially hydrogenated to give a solid at room temperature and thus mimic natural lard, and canned under nitrogen gas. Compared to the rendered lard Procter & Gamble was already selling to consumers, Crisco was cheaper, easier to stir into a recipe, and could be stored at room temperature for two years without turning rancid.[citation needed
]

Soybeans are protein-rich, and the medium viscosity oil rendered from them was high in polyunsaturates.

EU (3.2 MT).[13]

The early 20th century also saw the start of the use of

diesel engines and in heating oil burners. Rudolf Diesel designed his engine to run on vegetable oil. The idea, he hoped, would make his engines more attractive to farmers who had a source of fuel readily available. Diesel's first engine ran on its own power for the first time in Augsburg, Germany, on 10 August 1893 on nothing but peanut oil. In remembrance of this event, 10 August has been declared "International Biodiesel Day".[14] The first patent on Biodiesel was granted in 1937.[15] Periodic petroleum shortages spurred research into vegetable oil as a diesel substitute during the 1930s and 1940s, and again in the 1970s and early 1980s when straight vegetable oil enjoyed its highest level of scientific interest. The 1970s also saw the formation of the first commercial enterprise to allow consumers to run straight vegetable oil in their vehicles. However, biodiesel, produced from oils or fats using transesterification is more widely used. Led by Brazil, many countries built biodiesel plants during the 1990s, and it is now widely available for use in motor vehicles, and is the most common biofuel in Europe today. In France, biodiesel is incorporated at a rate of 8% in the fuel used by all French diesel vehicles.[16]

In the mid-1970s, Canadian researchers developed a low-erucic-acid rapeseed cultivar. Because the word "rape" was not considered optimal for marketing, they coined the name "canola" (from "Canada Oil low acid"). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved use of the canola name in January 1985,[17] and U.S. farmers started planting large areas that spring. Canola oil is lower in saturated fats, and higher in monounsaturates. Canola is very thin (unlike corn oil) and flavorless (unlike olive oil), so it largely succeeds by displacing soy oil, just as soy oil largely succeeded by displacing cottonseed oil.[citation needed]

The production of vegetable oils went up 125% between 2000 and 2020, driven by a sharp increase in palm oil.[18]

Uses

Culinary

See also: Cooking oil

Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats, including butter, ghee, lard, and schmaltz. The oils serve a number of purposes in this role:

  • Shortening – as in giving pastries a crumbly texture.
  • Enriching – adding calories and satisfaction in consumption
  • Texture – altering how ingredients combine, especially fats and starches
  • Flavoring – examples include
    almond
    oil
  • Flavor base – oils can also "carry" flavors of other ingredients, such as peppers,[19] since many flavors are due to chemicals that are soluble in oil.

Oils can be heated to temperatures significantly higher than the boiling point of water, 100 °C (212 °F), and used to

safflower, peanut, cottonseed, etc. – and tropical oils, such as coconut, palm, and rice bran
. The latter are particularly valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking, because of their unusually high flash points.

Industrial

Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products.[citation needed]

Many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic products. Some oils are particularly suitable as

biodegradable if spilled and have high flash and fire points. However, vegetable oils are less stable chemically, so they are generally used in systems where they are not exposed to oxygen, and they are more expensive than crude oil distillate. Synthetic tetraesters, which are similar to vegetable oils but with four fatty acid chains compared to the normal three found in a natural ester, are manufactured by Fischer esterification. Tetraesters generally have high stability to oxidation and have found use as engine lubricants. Vegetable oil is being used to produce biodegradable hydraulic fluid[20] and lubricant.[21]

One limiting factor in industrial uses of vegetable oils is that all such oils are susceptible to becoming

hydroxyl group on the fatty acid. Castor oil is a precursor to Nylon 11. Castor oil may also be reacted with epichlorohydrin to make a glycidyl ether which is used as a diluent and flexibilizer with epoxy resins.[citation needed
]

Pet food additive

Vegetable oil is used in the production of some pet foods. AAFCO[22] defines vegetable oil in this context as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting the oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes.[citation needed]

Fuel

Main article: Vegetable oil fuel

Vegetable oils are also used to make

straight vegetable oil, also known as pure plant oil, needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity. The use of vegetable oils as alternative energy is growing[citation needed] and the availability of biodiesel around the world is increasing.[citation needed
]

The NNFCC estimates that the total net greenhouse gas savings when using vegetable oils in place of fossil fuel-based alternatives for fuel production, range from 18 to 100%.[24]

Production

Main article: Edible oil refining

The production process of vegetable oil involves the removal of oil from plant components, typically seeds. This can be done via mechanical extraction using an oil mill or chemical extraction using a solvent. The extracted oil can then be purified and, if required, refined or chemically altered.[citation needed]

Mechanical extraction

Oils can be removed via mechanical extraction, termed "crushing" or "pressing". This method is typically used to produce the more traditional oils (e.g., olive, coconut etc.), and it is preferred by most

health-food customers in the United States and in Europe.[citation needed] There are several different types of mechanical extraction.[25] Expeller pressing extraction is common, though the screw press, ram press, and ghani (powered mortar and pestle) are also used. Oilseed presses are commonly used in developing countries, among people for whom other extraction methods would be prohibitively expensive; the ghani is primarily used in India.[26] The amount of oil extracted using these methods varies widely, as shown in the following table for extracting mowrah butter in India:[27]

Method Percentage extracted
Ghani[28] 20–30%
Expellers 34–37%
Solvent 40–43%

Solvent extraction

The processing of vegetable oil in commercial applications is commonly done by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-derived hexane. This technique is used for most of the "newer" industrial oils such as soybean and corn oils.[citation needed] After extraction, the solvent is evaporated out by heating the mixture to about 149 °C (300 °F).[29]

Supercritical carbon dioxide can be used as a non-toxic alternative to other solvents.[30]

Hydrogenation

Main article: Fat hydrogenation

Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete

vegetable shortening
, will remain solid at room temperature.

Hydrogenating vegetable oil is done by raising a blend of vegetable oil and a metal catalyst, typically nickel, in near-vacuum to very high temperatures, and introducing hydrogen. This causes the carbon atoms of the oil to break double-bonds with other carbons. Each carbon atom becomes single-bonded to an individual hydrogen atom, and the double bond between carbons can no longer exist. A fully hydrogenated oil, also called a

oxidation
) or to change its physical characteristics. As the degree of saturation is raised by full or partial hydrogenation, the oil's viscosity and melting point increase.

While full hydrogenation produces largely saturated fatty acids, partial hydrogenation results in the transformation of unsaturated cis fatty acids to

coronary heart disease,[31] among other increased health risks. These concerns have led to regulations mandating the removal of partially hydrogenated oils from food.[32]

Deodorization

In the processing of edible oils, the oil is heated under vacuum to near the smoke point or to about 232 °C (450 °F),[33] and water is introduced at the bottom of the oil. The water immediately is converted to steam, which bubbles through the oil, carrying with it any chemicals which are water-soluble. The steam sparging removes impurities that can impart unwanted flavors and odors to the oil. Deodorization is key to the manufacture of vegetable oils. Nearly all soybean, corn, and canola oils found on supermarket shelves go through a deodorization stage that removes trace amounts of odors and flavors, and lightens the color of the oil. However, the process commonly results in higher levels of trans fatty acids and distillation of the oil's natural compounds.[34][35][36]

Occupational exposure

People can breathe in vegetable oil mist in the workplace. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for vegetable oil mist exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an eight-hour workday. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an eight-hour workday.[37]

Yield

World production of main vegetable oils by main producers

Typical productivity of some oil crops, measured in

Oil palm
is by far the highest yielding crop, capable of producing about 4 tons of palm oil per hectare per year.

Crop Yield
(t/ha/yr)
Palm oil[38] 4.0
Coconut oil[39] 1.4
Canola oil[40] 0.75
Soybean oil[40] 0.45
Sunflower oil[39] 0.6

Particular oils

For a more comprehensive list, see List of vegetable oils.

The following triglyceride vegetable oils account for almost all worldwide production, by volume. All are used as both cooking oils and as

SVO or to make biodiesel. According to the USDA, the total world consumption of major vegetable oils in 2007/08 was:[41]

Oil source World consumption
(million
metric tons
) 		Notes
Palm 41.31 The most widely produced tropical oil, also used to make biofuel
Soybean 41.28 One of the most widely consumed cooking oils
Rapeseed 18.24 One of the most widely used cooking oils, also used as fuel.

Canola is a variety (cultivar
) of rapeseed.

Sunflower seed 9.91 A common cooking oil, also used to make biodiesel
Cottonseed 4.99 A major food oil, often used in industrial food processing
Palm kernel 4.85 From the seed of the African palm tree
Peanut 4.82 Mild-flavored cooking oil
Coconut 3.48 Used in cooking, cosmetics and soaps
Olive 2.84 Used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps

These figures include industrial and animal feed use. The majority of European rapeseed oil production is used to produce biodiesel, or used directly as fuel in diesel cars which may require modification to heat the oil to reduce its higher viscosity.[citation needed]

Other significant oils include:

Composition of fats

Properties of vegetable oils[42]
The nutritional values are expressed as percent (%) by mass of total fat.
Type Processing
treatment[43]
Saturated

fatty acids
Monounsaturated

fatty acids
Polyunsaturated

fatty acids		 Smoke point
Total[42] Oleic
acid
(ω−9)		 Total[42]
α-Linolenic

acid
(ω−3)		 Linoleic
acid
(ω−6)		 ω−6:3
ratio
Avocado[44] 11.6 70.6 67.9 13.5 1 12.5 12.5:1 250 °C (482 °F)[45]
Brazil nut[46] 24.8 32.7 31.3 42.0 0.1 41.9 419:1 208 °C (406 °F)[47]
Canola[48] 7.4 63.3 61.8 28.1 9.1 18.6 2:1 204 °C (400 °F)[49]
Coconut[50] 82.5 6.3 6 1.7 0.019 1.68 88:1 175 °C (347 °F)[47]
Corn[51] 12.9 27.6 27.3 54.7 1 58 58:1 232 °C (450 °F)[49]
Cottonseed[52] 25.9 17.8 19 51.9 1 54 54:1 216 °C (420 °F)[49]
Cottonseed[53]
hydrogenated
 93.6 1.5 0.6 0.2 0.3 1.5:1
Flaxseed/linseed[54] 9.0 18.4 18 67.8 53 13 0.2:1 107 °C (225 °F)
Grape seed[55]   9.6 16.1 15.8   69.9 0.10 69.6 very high 216 °C (421 °F)
Hemp seed[56] 7.0 9.0 9.0 82.0 22.0 54.0 2.5:1 166 °C (330 °F)[57]
High-oleic safflower oil[58]
 7.5 75.2 75.2 12.8 0 12.8 very high 212 °C (414 °F)[47]
Olive (extra virgin)[59] 13.8 73.0 71.3 10.5 0.7 9.8 14:1 193 °C (380 °F)[47]
Palm[60] 49.3 37.0 40 9.3 0.2 9.1 45.5:1 235 °C (455 °F)
Palm[61] hydrogenated 88.2 5.7 0
Peanut[62] 16.2 57.1 55.4 19.9 0.318 19.6 61.6:1 232 °C (450 °F)[49]
Rice bran oil 25 38.4 38.4 36.6 2.2 34.4[63] 15.6:1 232 °C (450 °F)[64]
Sesame[65] 14.2 39.7 39.3 41.7 0.3 41.3 138:1
Soybean[66] 15.6 22.8 22.6 57.7 7 51 7.3:1 238 °C (460 °F)[49]
Soybean[67] partially hydrogenated 14.9 43.0 42.5 37.6 2.6 34.9 13.4:1
Sunflower[68] 8.99 63.4 62.9 20.7 0.16 20.5 128:1 227 °C (440 °F)[49]
Walnut oil[69] unrefined 9.1 22.8 22.2 63.3 10.4 52.9 5:1 160 °C (320 °F)[70]

Seed oil

See also: Seed oil misinformation

Seed oils are vegetable oils obtained from the seed (endosperm) rather than other parts of plants. Most vegetable oils are seed oils. Examples are sunflower, corn, and sesame oils.

Claims that seed oils are unhealthy are not supported by scientific evidence.[71][72]

Pre-pressing

Oils are extracted first by expeller or cold pressing methods, then solvent expelling the rest of the oils from the leftover matter. This is a method used by larger capacity oil mills. As the energy consumption of the mechanical press increases as more oil is released, it is more efficient to extract the rest of the oil (past around 60%) by solvent extraction.

Used oil

Main article: Yellow grease

A large quantity of used vegetable oil is produced and recycled, mainly from industrial

fast food restaurants
.

Recycled oil has numerous uses, including use as a

livestock feed
, pet food, soap, detergent, cosmetics, and industrial chemicals.

Since 2002, an increasing number of European Union countries have prohibited the inclusion of recycled vegetable oil from catering in animal feed. Used cooking oils from food manufacturing, however, as well as fresh or unused cooking oil, continue to be used in their animal feed.[73]

Shelf life

Due to their susceptibility to oxidation from exposure to oxygen, heat and light, resulting in the formation of oxidation products, such as peroxides and hydroperoxides, plant oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids have a limited shelf-life.[74][75]

Product labeling

In Canada, palm oil is one of five vegetable oils, along with palm kernel oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, and cocoa butter, which must be specifically named in the list of ingredients for a food product.[76] Also, oils in Canadian food products which have been modified or hydrogenated must contain the word "modified" or "hydrogenated" when listed as an ingredient.[77] A mix of oils other than the aforementioned exceptions may simply be listed as "vegetable oil" in Canada; however, if the food product is a cooking oil, salad oil or table oil, the type of oil must be specified and listing "vegetable oil" as an ingredient is not acceptable.[76]

From December 2014, all food products produced in the European Union were legally required to indicate the specific vegetable oil used in their manufacture, following the introduction of the Food Information to Consumers Regulation.[78]

See also

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Sources

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.

Further reading

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