Viking Age arms and armour

Vikings most commonly carried sturdy axes that could be thrown or swung with head-splitting force.[20] The Mammen Axe is a famous example of such battle-axes, ideally suited for throwing and melee combat.^[21]

An axe head was mostly wrought iron, with a steel cutting edge. This made the weapon less expensive than a sword, and was a standard item produced by blacksmiths, historically.

Like most other Scandinavian weaponry, axes were often given names. According to Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, axes were often named after she-trolls.^[22]

Spear

The spear was the most common weapon of the Scandinavian peasant class. Throwing spears were constantly used by the warrior class; despite popular belief, it was also the principal weapon of the Viking warrior, an apt fit to their formations and tactics. They consisted of metal heads with a blade and a hollow shaft, mounted on wooden shafts of two to three metres in length, and were typically made from ash wood. The spear heads could measure between twenty and sixty centimetres with a tendency towards longer heads in the later Viking Age.^[2] Spear heads with wings are called krókspjót (hooked spear) in the sagas. Some larger-headed spears were called höggspjót (chopping spear) and could also be used for cutting. The barbed throwing spears were often less decorated than the ostentatious thrusting spears, as the throwing spears were often lost in battle.^[23]

The spear was used both as a throwing weapon and as a thrusting weapon, although there was some specialization in design. Lighter, narrower spearheads were made for throwing; heavier broader ones, for stabbing.^[2] Most evidence indicates that they were used in one hand. Limited evidence from a saga^{[citation needed]} indicates that they may have been used with two hands, but not in battle. The head was held in place with a pin, which saga characters occasionally pull out to prevent a foe from re-using the weapon.

Compared with a sword, the spear can be made with inferior steel and far less metal overall. This made the weapon cheaper and probably within the capability of a common blacksmith to produce. Despite this, the spear held great cultural significance to the Viking warrior, as the primary weapon of Odin, the king of the Norse gods and the god of warfare, was the spear Gungnir.^[24] The Eyrbyggja saga alludes that a customary start to a battle included throwing a spear right over the enemy army to claim it for Odin.^[25][15] Possibly due to its cultural significance, pattern welded blades are common in spear heads, and the sockets were often decorated with silver inlaid patterns.^[2]

Other polearms

A polearm known as the atgeir is mentioned in several sagas of Icelanders and other literature. Atgeir is usually translated as "halberd", akin to a glaive. Gunnar Hámundarson is described in Njáls saga as cutting and impaling foes on his atgeir.

Several weapons (including the kesja and the höggspjót) appearing in the sagas are Viking halberds. No weapon matching their descriptions have been found in graves. These weapons may have been rare, or may not have been part of the funerary customs of the Vikings. A more likely explanation however is that these polearms are descriptions of early medieval weapons that have been added into the sagas; likely because they were written down during the same period.

Sling

The Viking age sling was easy to manufacture, consisting of a rope and sometimes a leather cup to assist with loading, giving many of the lower class access to a formidable weapon. Slingers make effective light infantry due to their lack of heavy equipment and open formation, and the concussive effect of slingstones even through metal armour.

Bows and arrows

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The bow and arrow was used for both hunting and warfare. They were made from yew, ash or elm. The draw force of a 10th-century bow may have reached some 90 pounds force (400 N) or more, resulting in an effective range of at least 200 metres (660 ft) depending on the weight of the arrow.^[26] A yew bow found at Viking Hedeby, which probably was a full-fledged war bow, had a draw force of well over 100 pounds. Replica bows using the original dimensions have been measured to between 100–130 pounds (45–59 kg) draw weight. A unit of length used in the Viking Age called a bow shot corresponded to what was later measured as 227.5 metres (746 ft). Illustrations from the time show bows being pulled back to the chest, rather than to the corner of the mouth or under the chin, as is common today.

Arrowheads were typically made from iron and produced in various shapes and dimensions, according to place of origin. Most arrowheads were fixed onto the arrow shaft by a shouldered tang that was fitted into the end of a shaft of wood. Some heads were also made of wood, bone or antler. Evidence for eagle feather flights has been found with the feathers being bound and glued on. The end of the shaft was flared with shallow self nocks, although some arrows possessed bronze cast nocks. The historical record also indicates that Vikings may have used barbed arrows, but the archaeological evidence for such technology is limited.

The earliest find of these relics were found in Denmark, seemingly belonging to the leading-warrior class based on the graves in which they were found.

Shields

Round shields

The shield was the most common means of defence. The sagas specifically mention linden wood for shield construction, although finds from graves show mostly other timbers, such as fir, alder and poplar with steel or iron shield boss. These timbers are not very dense and are light in the hand. They are also not inclined to split, unlike oak. Also, the fibres of the timber bind around blades preventing the blade from cutting any deeper unless a lot more pressure is applied. In conjunction with stronger wood, Vikings often reinforced their shields with leather or, occasionally, iron around the rim.^[2] Round shields seem to have varied in size from around 45–120 centimetres (18–47 in) in diameter but 75–90 centimetres (30–35 in) is by far the most common.

The smaller shield sizes came from the pagan period for the Saxons and the larger sizes from the 10th and 11th centuries. Most shields are shown in illuminations as being painted a single colour although some have a design painted onto them; the most common designs are simple crosses or derivations of sun wheels or segments. The few round shields that survived have much more complicated designs painted on them and sometimes very ornate silver and gold work applied around the boss and the strap anchors.^[27]

The Gokstad ship has places for shields to be hung on its railing and the Gokstad shields have holes along the rim for fastening some sort of non-metallic rim protection. These were called shield lists and they protected ship crews from waves and the wind. Some Viking shields may have been decorated by simple patterns although some skaldic poems praising shields might indicate more elaborate decoration and archaeological evidence has supported this. In fact, there is a complete subgenre of Skaldic poetry dedicated to shields, known as "shield poems", that describe scenes painted on shields.^[15] For example, the late-9th-century skaldic poem, Ragnarsdrápa, describes some shields painted with mythological scenes. Viking shields were also heavily used in formations. The shield wall or skjaldborg was a main formation in which accomplished Viking warriors would create a line of interlocked shields and thrust spears at adversaries. Other notable tactics included the svinfylking "boar battle formation", in which warriors would create a wedge configuration and attempt to burst through the front line of nearby foes.^[28]

Kite shields

It has been proposed that the medieval era kite shield favoured by the Normans was introduced to Europe by the Vikings.^[29] However, no documentation or remains of kite shields from the Viking period have been located by archaeologists, and the idea has been discarded.^[30]

It is commonly admitted that the kite shield originated in the Byzantine Empire, from where it quickly spread to Western Europe, where it was notably used by Franks.^[31][32] Eleventh century Normans most probably ended up using kite shield as result of their close cultural ties with Western Franks, who are also the origin of the Normans' famous nasal helmet, hauberk, and heavy cavalry tactics.^[33][34]

• Viking shield
• 
  A typical Viking shield in Gokstad style
• 
  Shield mountings on the ship

Armor

Helmet

The remains of six helmets from the Viking Age are known to exist:

• the Tjele helmet fragment;
• two fragments from Gotland;
• one fragment from Kyiv;
• the Gjermundbu helmet;
• the Yarm helmet, found in Yarm, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, England.

Of the four helmet fragments found in Scandinavia, only the remains from Gjermundbu were of use in significant reconstruction.^[35]

The Gjermundbu helmet dates to the 10th century. It was excavated on a farm called Gjermundbu in Ringerike in central Norway. Gjermundbu is located in Haugsbygd, a village in northeast of Hønefoss, in Buskerud, Norway. This helmet was made of iron from four plates after the spangenhelm pattern. This helmet has a rounded cap, and there is evidence that it also may have had a mail aventail. It has a "spectacle" guard around the eyes and nose which formed a sort of mask, which suggests a close affinity with the earlier Vendel Period helmets.

The Yarm helmet was discovered in the 1950s by workmen digging pipe trenches in Chapel Yard, Yarm, near the River Tees. Research led by Chris Caple of Durham University, and published in 2020, established that the helmet dates to the 10th century.^[36][37] This helmet is made of iron bands and plates, riveted together, with a simple knop at the top. Below the brow band it has a "spectacle" guard around the eyes and nose forming a sort of mask, which suggests an affinity with earlier Vendel Period helmets. The lower edge of the brow band is pierced with circular holes, where a mail curtain (or aventail) may have been attached.

From runestones and other illustrations, it is known that the Vikings also wore simpler helmets, often caps with a simple noseguard.^[38] Research indicates that Vikings may have only rarely used metal helmets.^[39] Helmets with metal horns, presumably for ceremonial use, are known from the Nordic Bronze Age, 2,000 years prior to the Viking Age.^[40]

Despite popular culture, there is no evidence that Vikings used horned helmets in battle as such horns would be impractical in a melee,^[20] but it is possible that horned head dresses were used in ritual contexts.^[41] The horned and winged helmets associated with the Vikings in popular mythology were the invention of 19th-century Romanticism.^[15] The horned helmet may have been introduced in Richard Wagner's Ring operas (set in Germany): The male chorus wore horned helmets, while the other characters had winged helmets.^[40]

Chain mail

Once again, a single fragmented but possibly complete

Hjortspring boat contained several incomplete suits of mail.

The mail worn by Vikings was almost certainly the "four-on-one" type, where four solid (punched or riveted) rings are connected by a single riveted ring. Mail of this type is known as a byrnie from Old Norse brynja. Given scarcity of archeological evidence for Viking armor and the fact that Vikings on a raid tried to avoid pitched battles, it's possible that mail was primarily worn only by the professional warriors going into battle, such as the Great Heathen Army of the mid-9th century in England or at Harald Hardrada's invasion of Northumbria at the Battle of Fulford in 1066, and wealthy nobles.

Lamellar

More than 30 lamellae (individual plates for lamellar armour) were found in Birka, Sweden, in 1877, 1934 and 1998–2000.^[44] They were dated to the same approximate period as the Gjermundbu mailshirt (900‒950) and may be evidence that some Vikings wore this armour, which is a series of small iron plates laced together or sewed to a stout fabric or leather cats shirt. There is considerable debate however as to whether the lamellae in question were in the possession of a Scandinavian resident or a foreign mercenary.

Cloth and leather

Quilted cloth (a gambeson) is conjectured as possible options for lower-status Viking warriors, though no reference to such are known from the sagas. Such materials survive poorly in graves, and no archaeological finds have been made. Some runestones depict what appears to be armour which is likely not chain mail. The armour in question may have been the lamellar armour mentioned above, or may not have been armour at all. Several layers of stout linen or hemp canvas would provide a good level of protection, at reasonable expense, as would winter clothing made from thick woollen cloth.^[3] Practical experience with maille also suggests an undergarment of some sort would have been worn between the maille and the regular tunic, to protect the latter from dirt and excessive wear, but the descriptions of the effect of axes in the Sagas indicate such garments were lightly padded if at all.

Leather was far pricier during the period than today^[

), defending him from sword blows. The tunic is described as "magically" enhanced which may indicate that it may not represent a typical example of such a garment. Leather clothing does, however, occasionally turn up in archaeological finds, and would have offered some degree of protection in combat.

All in all, the case for non-metal forms of armour remains inconclusive. It is likely that the average Viking fought whilst wearing ordinary clothing, with the shield as the only form of protection.^[3]

Foreign origins of Viking arms and armour

Foreign-made, specifically Frankish, weapons and armour played a special role in Norse society. Norsemen attained them either through trade (an extension of gift-giving in Norse society)^{[citation needed]} or as plunder. Therefore, their possession and display by any individual would signify their station in the social hierarchy and any political allegiances they had.^[45][46] One example of an exchange of weapons between the Franks and the Vikings occurred in 795 when Charlemagne exchanged weapons with the Anglo-Saxon king Offa of Mercia.^[5]

Scandinavian affinity towards foreign arms and armour during the Viking Age had an eminently practical aspect. Norse weapon designs were obsolete and sources of iron within Scandinavia were of poor quality. Frankish swords like the VLFBERHT had a higher carbon content (making them more durable) and their design was much more manoeuvrable compared to Scandinavian-produced swords.^[5] Although smaller weapons like daggers, knives, and arrowheads could be manufactured in Scandinavia, the best swords and spearheads were undoubtedly imported.^[5][17]

Many of the most important Viking weapons were highly ornate—decorated lavishly with gold and silver. Weapons adorned as such served large religious and social functions. These precious metals were not produced in Scandinavia and they too would have been imported.^[17][47] Once in Scandinavia, the precious metals would have been inlaid in the pommels and blades of weapons creating geometric patterns, depictions of animals, and (later) Christian symbols.^[17]

Vikings also used foreign armour. According to Heimskringla, one hundred Vikings appeared "in coats of ring-mail, and in foreign helmets" at the Battle of Nesjar^[48] in 1016.

During the mid-9th century, there was an influx of these high-quality weapons into Scandinavia, and Frankish arms became the standard for all Vikings.^[42] As Ahmad ibn Fadlan observed in his account of his journey to Russia, every Viking carried a "sword of the Frankish type".^[49] The Franks attempted to limit the Vikings' use of weapons and armour produced in Francia—fearing that they would eventually face equally armed opponents.^[5] Chapter 10 of the Capitulare Bononiense of 811 made it illegal for any clerical functionary to supply swords or armour to non-Frankish individuals.^[50] Laws like this were enacted throughout Francia. Ultimately, in 864, King Charles the Bald of West Francia made the practice punishable by death.^[5]

Some scholars^[

which?] have proposed that such laws proved so effective at stemming the flow of Frankish weapons that they initiated the practice of raiding for which Vikings became notorious.^[5]

Saga accounts

Battles

• Battle of Hafrsfjord
• Battle of Hastings
• Battle of Hjörungavágr
• Battle of Svolder
• Battle of Nesjar
• Battle of Stiklestad
• Battle of Remich
• Sack of Santiago de Compostela

Duels

• Kormáks saga, holmgang of Kormák and Bersi

See also

• Anglo-Saxon warfare
• Gothic and Vandal warfare
• Norman invasions
• Shieldmaidens
• Viking raid warfare and tactics
• Leidang

References

1. ^ Poems of the Vikings: The Elder Edda: Havamal, Sayings of the High One.
2. ^
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3. ^
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4. ^
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5. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Hampton, Valerie Dawn (2011). "Viking Age Arms and Armor Originating in the Frankish Kingdom". The Hilltop Review. 4 (2): 36–44.
6. ISBN 978-0-486-29288-5
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7. ^ "Scans of Viking Swords Reveal a Slice of Norse Culture". Live Science. Retrieved 2017-04-15.
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10. ^ "Viking Weapons and Warfare". BBC. 15 October 2010. Retrieved 15 November 2010.
11. ^
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12. ^ Stephen V. Grancsav, "A Viking Chieftain's Sword", The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, XVII (March 1959), 181.
13. ISBN 87-7303-556-4
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14. ISBN 1-85375-133-2
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15. ^
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16. ^ Oxenstierna, Eric (1916). The Norsemen. Connecticut: New York Graphic Society Publishers, Ltd.
17. ^ ^{a b c d} Pedersen, Anne (2008). "Viking Weaponry". The Viking World: ch 15.
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19. ^ "Viking Axe Facts - Battle Ready Norse Weapon". Clutch Axes. 2018-04-24. Retrieved 2019-12-29.
20. ^ ^{a b} "How the Vikings Worked". HowStuffWorks. 14 April 2008. Retrieved 15 November 2010.
21. ^ Peter G. Foote and David M. Wilson, The Viking Achievement (New York, 1970), 278.
22. ^ Sturluson, Snorri (1916). The Prose Edda. New York, The American-Scandinavian Foundation.
23. ^ Foote and Wilson, 275–76.
24. ^ Silén, Lars (1983). "Några Reflektioner Angående Bilderna på Balingsta-Stenen i Uppland" (PDF). Fornvännen. 78. Swedish National Heritage Board: 88–91. Retrieved 2010-01-28.
25. ISBN 978-0-14-044530-5
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26. ^ Tommy. "Bows and Arrows in the Viking Age". Harrieira, 2020, harreira.com/viking/bows-and-arrows-in-the-viking-age.
27. ^ "Arms and Armour Part 8 Shields". Regia Anglorum. 10 December 2002. Retrieved 15 November 2010.
28. ^ Foote and Wilson, 282–85.
29. ISBN 978-9004185487
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30. ^ Grotowski, Piotr (2010). Arms and Armour of the Warrior Saints: Tradition and Innovation in Byzantine Iconography (843–1261). Brill. p. 231.
31. ISBN 9780244474881
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32. ^ Gritowski 2010, p. 232. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGritowski2010 (help)
33. ISBN 9781473848474
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34. ISBN 9780986425493
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35. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on March 25, 2009. Retrieved April 9, 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link): "Picture: The world's only existing Viking Age helmet, from Gjermundbu in Ringerike"
36. ^ "Britain's first ever Viking helmet discovered". BBC News. 9 August 2020. Retrieved 9 August 2020.
37. ^ "Britain's first ever Viking helmet discovered". Preston Park Museum. 6 August 2020. Retrieved 9 August 2020.
38. ^ Gjermundbu (The Unique Gjermundbu Find) Archived 2014-02-15 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 10 March 2011.
39. ^ Wester, K. (2000). The mystery of the missing Viking helmets. Neurosurgery, 47(5), 1216–29.
40. ^ ^{a b} Ward, E. I. (2001). Viking Pop Culture on Display: The Case of the Horned Helmets. Material Culture Review, 54(1).
41. ^ "Did Vikings really wear horns on their helmets?". The Straight Dope. 2004-12-07. Retrieved 2008-11-01.
42. ^ ^{a b} Callmer, Johan (2008). "Scandinavia and the Continent in the Viking Age". The Viking World.
43. ^ Pederson, Anne (2008). "Viking Weaponry". The Viking World: ch 15.
44. ^ M. Olausson, "Krigarens resa och hemkomst", Olausson, M. (ed.), Birkas krigare (Stockholm, 2001) (in Swedish)
45. ^ Callmer, Johan (2008). "Scandinavia and the Continent in the Vikings Age". The Viking World: ch 33.
46. ^ Hedeager, Lotte (2008). "Scandinavia before the Viking Age". The Viking World: ch 1.
47. ^ Ljungkvist, John (2008). "Handicrafts". The Viking World.
48. ^ Sturlson, Snorri. Heimskringla.
49. ^ Ibn Fadlan (2005). Journey to Russia. New Jersey: Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 63.
50. ^ "Capitulare Bononiense". Translations and Reprints. VI. Retrieved 2014-11-21. Ch. 10. It has been enacted that no bishop or abbot or abbess, or any rector or guardian of a church, shall presume without our permission to give or sell a byrnie or sword to any man outside, except only to his own vassals.

• Keynes, Simon and Lapige, Michael. Alfred the Great: Asser's life of king Alfred. New York: penguin Books, 1983, Print.
• Short, William R. Viking Weapons and Combat Techniques.Yardley, Pennsylvania: Westholmet Publishing, 2009. print
• Sprague, Martina. Norse Warfare.New York:Hippocrene Books Inc, 2007. print.
• Poems of the Vikings,:the Elder Edda, translated by Terry, Patricia. New York: The Bobbs Merrill Company, print

Further reading

• Oakeshott, R. Ewart (1996) The Archaeology of Weapons, Arms and Armour from Prehistory to the Age of Chivalry (New York: Dover Publications Inc.)
  ISBN 978-0-486-29288-5
• Hynson, Colin (2009) In Viking Times (Men, Women & Children) (Wayland Publishers Ltd.)
  ISBN 978-0-7502-5908-8
• Sawyer, Peter (ed) (1997) The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings (Oxford University Press)
  ISBN 978-0-19-285434-6
• Kane, Njord (2015) The Vikings: The Story of a People (Spangenhelm Publishing)
  ISBN 978-1-943066-018

External links

• Viking Age Arms and Armor (hurstwic.org)
• Arms and Combat in the Íslendingasögur
• Viking Weapons and Warfare (bbc.co.uk)
• The 'Viking Shield' from Archaeology Archived 2017-06-02 at the Wayback Machine by Peter Beatson
• Viking Helmet from Gjermundbu, Norway
• Metropolitan Museum of Art