Norman conquest of southern Italy
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The Norman conquest of southern Italy lasted from 999 to 1194, involving many battles and independent conquerors.
In 1130, the territories in southern Italy united as the Kingdom of Sicily, which included the island of Sicily, the southern third of the Italian Peninsula (except Benevento, which was briefly held twice), the archipelago of Malta, and parts of North Africa.
Itinerant
Unlike the Norman Conquest of England (1066), which took a few years after one decisive battle, the conquest of southern Italy was the product of decades and a number of battles, few decisive. Many territories were conquered independently, and only later were unified into a single state. Compared to the conquest of England, it was unplanned and disorganised, but equally complete.
Pre-Norman Viking activity in Italy
There is little evidence for Viking activity in Italy as a precursor to the arrival of the Normans in 999, but some raiding is recorded.
Many Norsemen fought as mercenaries in Southern Italy, including the
Later, several Anglo-Danish and Norwegian nobles participated in the Norman conquest of southern Italy, like
Arrival of the Normans in Italy
The earliest reported date of the arrival of Norman knights in southern Italy is 999, although it may be assumed that they had visited before then. In that year, according to some traditional sources of uncertain origin, Norman pilgrims returning from the
The Salerno tradition was first recorded by
Another historical account of the arrival of the first Normans in Italy, the "Gargano tradition", appears in primary chronicles without reference to any previous Norman presence.
As with the Salerno tradition, there are two primary sources for the Gargano story: the Gesta Roberti Wiscardi of William of Apulia (dated 1088–1110) and the Chronica monasterii S. Bartholomaei de Carpineto of a monk named Alexander, written about a century later and based on William's work.[16] Some scholars have combined the Salerno and Gargano tales, and John Julius Norwich suggested that the meeting between Melus and the Normans had been arranged by Guaimar.[17] Melus had been in Salerno just before his visit to Monte Gargano.
Another story involves the exile of a group of brothers from the
Between 1016 and 1024, in a fragmented political context, the Lombard County of Ariano was usurped by a group of Norman knights headed by Gilbert and hired by Melus. The County, which replaced the pre-existing chamberlainship, is considered to be the first political body established by the Normans in the South of Italy.[19][20]Repostel's murder is dated by all the chronicles to the reign of Robert the Magnificent and after 1027, although some scholars believe "Robert" was a scribal error for "Richard" (
A modern hypothesis concerning the Norman arrival in the Mezzogiorno concerns the chronicles of Glaber, Adhemar and Leo (not Peter's continuation). All three chronicles indicate that Normans (either a group of 40 or a much-larger force of around 250) under "Rodulfus" (Rudolf), fleeing Richard II, came to Pope Benedict VIII of Rome. The pope sent them to Salerno (or Capua) to seek mercenary employment against the Byzantines because of the latter's invasion of papal Beneventan territory.[25] There, they met the Beneventan primates (leading men): Landulf V of Benevento, Pandulf IV of Capua, (possibly) Guaimar III of Salerno and Melus of Bari. According to Leo's chronicle, "Rudolf" was Ralph of Tosni.[18][26] If the first confirmed Norman military actions in the south involved Melus' mercenaries against the Byzantines in May 1017, the Normans probably left Normandy between January and April.[27]
Lombard revolt, 1009–1022
On 9 May 1009, an insurrection erupted in
At
Alarmed by the shift in momentum in the south, Pope Benedict (who may have initiated Norman involvement in the war) went north in 1020 to
Mercenary service, 1022–1046
In 1024, Norman mercenaries under
In 1029, Ranulf and Sergius recaptured Naples. In early 1030 Sergius gave Ranulf the
For the Normans never desired any of the Lombards to win a decisive victory, in case this should be to their disadvantage. But now supporting the one and then aiding the other, they prevented anyone being completely ruined.
Norman reinforcements and local miscreants, who found a welcome in Ranulf's camp with no questions asked, swelled Ranulf's numbers.[28] There, Amatus observed that the Norman language and customs welded a disparate group into the semblance of a nation. In 1035, the same year William the Conqueror would become Duke of Normandy, Tancred of Hauteville's three eldest sons (William "Iron Arm", Drogo and Humphrey) arrived in Aversa from Normandy.[29]
In 1037, or the summer of 1038
In 1038 Byzantine Emperor
After the assassination of Catapan Nikephoros Dokeianos at Ascoli in 1040 the Normans elected Atenulf, brother of Pandulf III of Benevento, their leader. On 16 March 1041, near Venosa on the Olivento, the Norman army tried to negotiate with Catapan Michael Dokeianos; although they failed, they still defeated the Byzantine army in the Battle of Olivento. On 4 May 1041 the Norman army, led by William Iron Arm, defeated the Byzantines again in the Battle of Montemaggiore near Cannae (avenging the Norman defeat in the 1018 Battle of Cannae[29]). Although the catapan summoned a large Varangian force from Bari, the battle was a rout; many of Michael's soldiers drowned in the Ofanto while retreating.[30]
On 3 September 1041 at the
The revolt, originally Lombard, had become Norman in character and leadership. In September 1042, the three principal Norman groups held a council in
At Melfi in 1043, Guaimar divided the region (except for Melfi itself, which was to be governed on a republican model) into twelve baronies for the Norman leaders. William received
During their reign William and Guaimar began the conquest of
County of Melfi, 1046–1059
In 1046 Drogo entered Apulia and defeated the catepan, Eustathios Palatinos, near Taranto while his brother Humphrey forced Bari to conclude a treaty with the Normans. Also that year, Richard Drengot arrived with 40 knights from Normandy and Robert "Guiscard" Hauteville arrived with other Norman immigrants.[32]
In 1047 Guaimar (who had supported Drogo's succession and the establishment of a Norman dynasty in the south) gave him his daughter,
In 1048 Drogo commanded an expedition into Calabria via the valley of
The hatred of the Italians for the Normans has now reached such a pitch that it is almost impossible for any Norman, albeit a pilgrim, to journey in the towns of Italy, without being assailed, abducted, robbed, beaten, thrown in irons, even if fortunate enough not to die in a prison.[35]
The pope and his supporters, including the future Gregory VII, called for an army to oust the Normans from Italy.[34]
On 18 June 1053, Humphrey led the Norman armies against the combined forces of the pope and the Holy Roman Empire. At the Battle of Civitate the Normans destroyed the papal army and captured Leo IX, imprisoning him in Benevento (which had surrendered). In 1054 Peter II, who succeeded Peter I in the region of Trani, captured the city from the Byzantines. Humphrey died in 1057; he was succeeded by Guiscard, who ended his loyalty to the Empire and made himself a papal vassal in return for the title of duke.[34]
County of Aversa, 1049–1098
During the 1050s and 1060s, there were two centres of Norman power in southern Italy: one at Melfi (under the Hautevilles) and another at Aversa (under the Drengots).
When the prince of Capua died in 1057, Richard immediately besieged the comune. This chronology is also unclear. Pandulf was succeeded at Capua by his brother, Landulf VIII, who is recorded as prince until 12 May 1062. Richard and Jordan took the princely title in 1058, but apparently allowed Landulf to continue ruling beneath them for at least four years more. In 1059 Pope Nicholas II convened a synod at Melfi confirming Richard as Count of Aversa and Prince of Capua, and Richard swore allegiance to the papacy for his holdings. The Drengots then made Capua their headquarters for ruling Aversa and Gaeta.
Richard and Jordan expanded their new Gaetan and Capuan territories northwards toward Latium, into the Papal States. In 1066 Richard marched on Rome, but was easily repelled. Jordan's tenure as Richard's successor marked an alliance with the papacy (which Richard had attempted), and the conquests of Capua ceased. When Jordan died in 1090, his young son Richard II and his regents were unable to hold Capua. They were forced to flee the city by a Lombard, Lando, who ruled it with popular support until he was forced out by the combined Hauteville forces in the siege of Capua in 1098; this ended Lombard rule in Italy.
Conquest of the Abruzzo, 1053–1105
In 1077 the last Lombard prince of Benevento died, and in 1078 the pope appointed Robert Guiscard to succeed him. In 1081, however, Guiscard relinquished Benevento. By then, the principality comprised little more than Benevento and its environs; it had been reduced in size by Norman conquests during the previous decades, especially after the Battle of Civitate and after 1078.[38] At Ceprano in June 1080 the pope again gave Guiscard control of Benevento, an attempt to halt Norman incursions into it and associated territory in the Abruzzi (which Guiscard's relatives had been appropriating).
After the Battle of Civitate, the Normans began the conquest of the Adriatic coast of Benevento.
The conquest of the
Conquest of Sicily, 1061–1091
After roughly a century of Arab control (following the Saracen defeat of Byzantine forces in 965), Sicily was inhabited by a mix of Christians, Arab Muslims, and Muslim converts at the time of its conquest by the Normans. It had originally been under the rule of the
Robert and Roger first invaded Sicily in May 1061, crossing from
Robert returned in 1064, bypassing Castrogiovanni on his way to
In 1077 Roger besieged Trapani, one of the two remaining Saracen strongholds in the west of the island.[43] His son, Jordan, led a sortie which surprised guards of the garrison's livestock. With its food supply cut off, the city soon surrendered. In 1079 Taormina was besieged, and in 1081 Jordan, Robert de Sourval and Elias Cartomi conquered Catania (a holding of the emir of Syracuse) in another surprise attack.
Roger left Sicily in the summer of 1083 to assist his brother on the mainland; Jordan (whom he had left in charge) revolted, forcing him to return to Sicily and subjugate his son. In 1085, he was finally able to undertake a systematic campaign. On 22 May Roger approached Syracuse by sea, while Jordan led a small cavalry detachment 25 kilometres (15 miles) north of the city. On 25 May, the navies of the count and the emir engaged in the harbour – where the latter was killed – while Jordan's forces besieged the city. The siege lasted throughout the summer, but when the city capitulated in March 1086 only Noto was still under Saracen dominion. In February 1091 Noto yielded as well, and the conquest of Sicily was complete.[44]
In 1091, Roger invaded Malta and subdued the walled city of Mdina. He imposed taxes on the islands, but allowed the Arab governors to continue their rule. In 1127 Roger II abolished the Muslim government, replacing it with Norman officials. Under Norman rule, the Arabic spoken by the Greek Christian islanders for centuries of Muslim domination became Maltese.[45]
Conquest of Amalfi and Salerno, 1073–1077
The fall of Amalfi and Salerno to Robert Guiscard were influenced by his wife,
By summer 1076, through piracy and raids Gisulf II of Salerno incited the Normans to destroy him; that season, under Richard of Capua and Robert Guiscard the Normans united to besiege Salerno. Although Gisulf ordered his citizens to store two years' worth of food, he confiscated enough of it to starve his subjects. On 13 December 1076, the city submitted; the prince and his retainers retreated to the citadel, which fell in May 1077. Although Gisulf's lands and relics were confiscated, he remained at liberty. The Principality of Salerno had already been reduced to little more than the capital city and its environs by previous wars with William of the Principate, Roger of Sicily and Robert Guiscard.[47] However, the city was the most important in southern Italy and its capture was essential to the creation of a kingdom fifty years later.
In 1073
Robert's son Bohemond and his brother Roger of Sicily attacked Amalfi in 1097, but were repulsed. During this siege, the Normans began to be drawn by the First Crusade. Marinus was defeated after Amalfitan noblemen defected to the Norman side and betrayed him in 1101. Amalfi revolted again in 1130, when Roger II of Sicily demanded its loyalty. It was finally subdued in 1131 when Admiral John marched on it by land and George of Antioch blockaded it by sea, establishing a base on Capri.
Byzantine–Norman wars, 1059–1085
The Normans' initial military involvement in southern Italy was on the side of the Lombards against the Byzantines. Eventually, some Normans, including the powerful de Hauteville brothers, served in the army of George Maniakes during the attempted Byzantine reconquest of Sicily, only to turn against their employers when the emirs proved difficult to conquer.[49][50] By 1030, Rainulf became count of Aversa, marking the start of permanent Norman settlement in Italy.[49] In 1042, William de Hauteville was made a count, taking Lombard prince Guaimar IV of Salerno as his liege.[49] To further strengthen ties and legitimacy, Robert Guiscard also married Lombard Princess Sikelgaita in 1058.[49] Following the death of Guaimar, the Normans were increasingly independent actors on the south Italian scene, which brought them into direct conflict with Byzantium.
During the time that the Normans had conquered southern Italy, the Byzantine Empire was in a state of internal decay; the administration of the Empire had been wrecked, the efficient government institutions that provided Basil II with a quarter of a million troops and adequate resources by taxation had collapsed within a period of three decades. Attempts by Isaac I Komnenos and Romanos IV Diogenes to reverse the situation proved unfruitful. The premature death of the former and the overthrow of the latter led to further collapse as the Normans consolidated their conquest of Sicily and Italy.
Reggio Calabria, the capital of the tagma of Calabria, was captured by Robert Guiscard in 1060. At the time, the Byzantines held a few coastal towns in Apulia, including Bari, the capital of the catepanate of Italy. In 1067–68, they gave financial support to a rebellion against Guiscard. In 1068, the Normans besieged Otranto; in the same year, they began the siege of Bari itself. After defeating the Byzantines in a series of battles in Apulia, and after two major attempts to relieve the city had failed, the city Bari surrendered in April 1071, ending the Byzantine presence in southern Italy.[51]
In 1079–80, the Byzantines again gave their support to a rebellion against Guiscard. This support came largely in the form of financing smaller Norman mercenary groups to assist in the rebellion[51]
Over a thirty-year period (1061–1091), Norman factions also completed the initial Byzantine attempt to retake Sicily. However, it would not be until 1130 that both Sicily and southern Italy were united into one kingdom, formalized by Roger II of Sicily.[52]
Conquest of Naples, 1077–1139
The Duchy of Naples, nominally a Byzantine possession, was one of the last southern Italian states to be attacked by the Normans. Since Sergius IV asked for Ranulf Drengot's help during the 1020s, with brief exceptions the dukes of Naples were allied with the Normans of Aversa and Capua. Beginning in 1077, the incorporation of Naples into the Hauteville state took sixty years to complete.
In summer 1074, hostilities flared up between Richard of Capua and Robert Guiscard. Sergius V of Naples allied with the latter, making his city a supply centre for Guiscard's troops. This pitted him against Richard, who was supported by Gregory VII. In June Richard briefly besieged Naples; Richard, Robert and Sergius soon began negotiations with Gregory, mediated by Desiderius of Montecassino.
In 1077 Naples was again besieged by Richard of Capua, with a naval blockade by Robert Guiscard. Richard died during the siege in 1078, after the deathbed lifting of his excommunication. The siege was ended by his successor, Jordan, to insinuate himself with the papacy (which had made peace with Duke Sergius).
In 1130, the Antipope Anacletus II crowned Roger II of Sicily king and declared the fief of Naples part of his kingdom.[53] In 1131, Roger demanded from the citizens of Amalfi the defences of their city and the keys to their castle. When they refused, Sergius VII of Naples initially prepared to aid them with a fleet; George of Antioch blockaded Naples' port with a large armada and Sergius, cowed by the suppression of the Amalfitans, submitted to Roger. According to the chronicler Alexander of Telese, Naples "which, since Roman times, had hardly ever been conquered by the sword now submitted to Roger on the strength of a mere report (i.e. Amalfi's fall)."
In 1134 Sergius supported the rebellion of
The defeat at Rignano enabled the Norman conquest of Naples, since Sergius died without heir and the Neapolitan nobility could not reach a succession agreement. However, it was two years between Sergius' death and Naples' incorporation by Sicily. The nobility apparently ruled during the interim, which may have been the final period of Neapolitan independence from Norman rule.
Kingdom of Sicily, 1130–1198
Although the conquest of Sicily was primarily military, Robert and Roger also signed treaties with the Muslims to obtain land. Hindered by Sicily's hilly terrain and a relatively small army, the brothers sought influential, worn-down Muslim leaders to sign the treaties (offering peace and protection for land and titles). Because Sicily was conquered by a unified command, Roger's authority was not challenged by other conquerors and he maintained power over his Greek, Arab, Lombard and Norman subjects. Latin Christianity was introduced to the island, and its ecclesiastical organisation was overseen by Roger with papal approval.
These areas included the
With the invasion of
Encastellation
The Norman conquest of southern Italy began an infusion of Romanesque (specifically Norman) architecture. Some castles were expanded on existing Lombard, Byzantine or Arab structures, while others were original constructions. Latin cathedrals were built in lands recently converted from Byzantine Christianity or Islam, in a Romanesque style influenced by Byzantine and Islamic designs. Public buildings, such as palaces, were common in larger cities (notably Palermo); these structures, in particular, demonstrate the influence of Siculo-Norman culture.
The Normans rapidly began the construction, expansion and renovation of castles in southern Italy. By the end of the Norman period, most
After the Lombard castle at Melfi, which was conquered by the Normans early and augmented with a surviving, rectangular
Guiscard was a major castle-builder after his accession to the Apulian countship, building a castle at Gargano with pentagonal towers known as the Towers of Giants. Later, Henry, Count of Monte Sant'Angelo built a castle at nearby Castelpagano. In the Molise the Normans built many fortresses into the naturally defensible terrain, such as Santa Croce and Ferrante. The region of a line running from Terracina to Termoli has the greatest density of Norman castles in Italy.[57] Many sites were originally Samnite strongholds reused by the Romans and their successors; the Normans called such a fortress a castellum vetus (old castle). Many Molisian castles have walls integrated into the mountains and ridges, and much of the quickly erected masonry demonstrates that the Normans introduced the opus gallicum into the Molise.[58]
The encastellation of Sicily was begun at the behest of the native Greek inhabitants.
See also
- Vikings
- Normans
- Byzantine-Norman Wars
- First Crusade
Citations
- LCCN 2002153822.
- ^ ISBN 9781139167741.
- ^ Ann Christys, Vikings in the South (London: Bloomsbury, 2015), pp. 59–60.
- ^ Haywood, John. Northmen. Head of Zeus.
- ^ Carr, John. Fighting Emperors of Byzantium. Pen and Sword. p. 177.
- ^ Hill, Paul. The Norman Commanders: Masters of Warfare 911–1135. Pen and Sword. p. 18.
- ^ Ullidtz, Per. 1016 The Danish Conquest of England. BoD – Books on Demand. p. 936.
- ^ 2. Runriket – Täby Kyrka Archived 2008-06-04 at archive.today, an online article at Stockholm County Museum, retrieved July 1, 2007.
- ^ Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, p. 217; Florence of Worcester, p. 145
- ^ Orkneyinga Saga, Anderson, Joseph, (Edinburgh: Edmonston and Douglas, 1873), FHL microfilm 253063., p. 134, 139, 144–145, 149–151, 163, 193.
- ^ Translation based on Chibnall (ed.), Ecclesiastical History, vol. ii, pp. 203, 205
- ^ a b Joranson, 355 and n 19.
- ^ ISBN 0-85115-359-3.
- ^ Joranson, 356.
- ^ Both Chalandon and Norwich provide a combined story based on the Salerno and Gargano traditions. Houben, p. 8, presents the Salerno tradition as fact.
- ^ Joranson, 358.
- ^ Chalandon makes a similar connection between the traditions. Joranson, 367, finds such hypotheses "unworkable."
- ^ ISBN 0-85115-359-3.
- ^ "Il Mezzogiorno agli inizi dell'XI secolo" [Southern Italy at the beginning of 11th century]. European Center for Norman Studies (in Italian). Archived from the original on 2019-01-15. Retrieved 2017-10-14.
- ^ ISBN 9781472839442.
- ^ Joranson, 369.
- ^ Joranson, 371.
- ^ Chalandon, 52. Norwich.
- ^ Joranson, 371, disputes the identification of the two Rudolfs.
- ^ Joranson, 371–373.
- ^ Joranson, 373. Leo calls him "Rodulfus Todinensis."
- ^ Joranson, 372.
- ^ ISBN 0-85115-359-3.
- ^ a b c The Normans p. 104
- ^ Brown, Gordon S. (2003) p. 42
- ^ a b The Normans pp. 104–106
- ^ a b c d The Normans p. 106
- ^ a b The Normans p. 108
- ^ a b c d e f The Normans p. 109
- ^ Chalandon, i, 124; Migne Pat. Lat., t. 143, p. 798
- ^ Skinner, 156 and n32. Both documents are preserved in the Codex Cajetanus . Both have been ruled forgeries on the basis of erroneous dating clauses and the absence of Richard. Also, Jordan's reputed wife, Rapizza, appears to be make-believe.
- ^ Skinner, 156 and n32.
- ^ "La battaglia di Civitate" (in Italian). 19 June 2018. Retrieved 28 August 2023.
- ^ "Il Molise in epoca normanna" (in Italian). Retrieved 28 August 2023.
- ^ "ROBERTO d'Altavilla, detto il Guiscardo, duca di Puglia, di Calabria e di Sicilia" (in Italian). Retrieved 28 August 2023.
- ^ "San Marco d'Alunzio" (in Italian). Retrieved 28 August 2023.
- ^ Rogers, p. 98.
- ^ "Comune di Trapani" (in Italian). Retrieved 28 August 2023.
- ^ "Ruggèro I conte di Sicilia" (in Italian). Retrieved 28 August 2023.
- ^ So who are the 'real' Maltese. September 13, 2014. Archived from the original on 2016-03-12.
The kind of Arabic used in the Maltese language is most likely derived from the language spoken by those that repopulated the island from Sicily in the early second millennium; it is known as Siculo-Arab. The Maltese are mostly descendants of these people.
- ^ a b Skinner, 203.
- ^ "L'EREDITA' NORMANNA" (in Italian). Retrieved 29 August 2023.
- ^ Skinner, 202.
- ^ a b c d Holmes 1988, p. 210
- ^ Shepard 1973, p.86.
- ^ JSTOR 44161007.
- ^ Davis-Secord 2017, p. 214.
- ^ a b Skinner, 206–207.
- ^ Douglas, David. The Norman Fate, 1100–1154. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1976.
- ISBN 0-521-65573-0.
- ^ Gravett and Nicolle, 132.
- ^ Gravett and Nicolle, 134, based on map.
- ^ Gravett and Nicolle, 135.
- ^ a b Gravett and Nicolle, 136.
- ^ Gravett and Nicolle, 137.
References
Primary
- Leeds University Medieval History Texts Centre, with primary sources available in translation under the heading "The Norman Kingdom of Sicily"
- ISBN 9782841337439. Texte latin et traduction française consultable en ligne : Malaterra
- William of Apulia, Gesta Roberti Wiscardi at The Latin Library
- Lupus Protospatarius Barensis, Rerum in regno Neapolitano gestarum breve chronicon, ab anno sal. 860 vsque ad 1102 at The Latin Library
- Van Houts, Elizabeth. The Normans in Europe. Manchester, 2000.
- Amatus of Montecassino, L'Ystoire de li Normant
Secondary
- Bachrach, Bernard S. "On the Origins of William the Conqueror's Horse Transports." Technology and Culture, Vol. 26, No. 3. (Jul., 1985), pp. 505–531.
- Brown, Gordon S. (2003). The Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily. McFarland & Company Inc. ISBN 978-0-7864-1472-7.
- Brown, Paul. (2016). Mercenaries To Conquerors: Norman Warfare in the Eleventh and Twelfth-Century Mediterranean, Pen & Sword.
- Chalandon, Ferdinand. Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicilie. Paris: 1907.
- Davis-Secord, Sarah. (2017). "Sicily at the Center of the Mediterranean". Where Three Worlds Met: Sicily in the Early Medieval Mediterranean. Cornell University Press. ISBN 1501712594.
- Loud, Graham Alexander. "Coinage, Wealth and Plunder in the Age of Robert Guiscard." English Historical Review, Vol. 114, No. 458. (Sep., 1999), pp. 815–843.
- Loud, Graham Alexander. "Continuity and change in Norman Italy: the Campania during the eleventh and twelfth centuries." Journal of Medieval History, Vol. 22, No. 4 (December, 1996), pp. 313–343.
- Loud, Graham Alexander. "How 'Norman' was the Norman Conquest of Southern Italy?" Nottingham Medieval Studies, Vol. 25 (1981), pp. 13–34.
- Loud, Graham Alexander. The Age of Robert Guiscard: Southern Italy and the Norman Conquest. Essex, 2000.
- France, John. "The Occasion of the Coming of the Normans to Italy." Journal of Medieval History, Vol. 17 (1991), pp. 185–205.
- Gay, Jules. L'Italie méridionale et l'empire Byzantin: Livre II. Burt Franklin: New York, 1904.
- Gravett, Christopher, and Nicolle, David. The Normans: Warrior Knights and their Castles. Osprey Publishing: Oxford, 2006.
- Holmes, George. (1988). The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192854356.
- ISBN 0-670-81967-0.
- Houben, Hubert (translated by Graham A. Loud and Diane Milburn). Roger II of Sicily: Ruler between East and West. Cambridge University Press, 2002.
- Jamison, Evelyn. "The Norman Administration of Apulia and Capua, more especially under Roger II and William I". Papers of the British School at Rome, VI (1917), pp. 265–270.
- Joranson, Einar. "The Inception of the Career of the Normans in Italy: Legend and History." Speculum, Vol. 23, No. 3. (Jul., 1948), pp. 353–396.
- Matthew, Donald. The Norman Kingdom of Sicily. Cambridge University Press, 1992.
- Norwich, John Julius. The Normans in the South 1016–1130. London: Longman, 1967.
- Norwich, John Julius. The Kingdom in the Sun 1130–1194. London: Longman, 1970.
- Rogers, Randall (1997). Latin Siege Warfare in the Twelfth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-820689-5.
- Shepard, Jonathan. (1973). "The English and Byzantium: A Study of Their Role in the Byzantine Army in the Later Eleventh Century". Traditio, Vol. 29. pp. 53–92.
- Skinner, Patricia. Family Power in Southern Italy: The Duchy of Gaeta and its Neighbours, 850-1139. Cambridge University Press: 1995.
- Theotokis, Georgios. (2014). The Norman Campaigns in the Balkans, 1081-1108, Boydell & Brewer.
- Theotokis, Georgios, ed. (2020). Warfare in the Norman Mediterranean. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell and Brewer. ISBN 9781783275212.