Magnus Barefoot
Magnus Barefoot | |||||
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King of Dublin | |||||
Reign | 1102–1103 | ||||
Predecessor | Domnall Gerrlámhach | ||||
Successor | Domnall Gerrlámhach | ||||
Born | 1073 Norway | ||||
Died | 24 August 1103 near River Quoile, Downpatrick, Ulster, Ireland | (aged 29–30)||||
Burial | near St. Patrick's Church, Downpatrick | ||||
Spouse | Margaret Fredkulla | ||||
Illegitimate children more... |
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House | Hardrada | ||||
Father | Olaf III of Norway | ||||
Mother | Tora?; disputed |
Magnus III Olafsson (
As the only son of King Olaf Kyrre, Magnus was proclaimed king in southeastern Norway shortly after his father's death in 1093. In the north his claim was contested by his cousin, Haakon Magnusson (son of King Magnus Haraldsson), and the two co-ruled uneasily until Haakon's death in 1095. Disgruntled members of the nobility refused to recognise Magnus after his cousin's death, but the insurrection was short-lived. After securing his position domestically, Magnus campaigned around the Irish Sea from 1098 to 1099. He raided through Orkney, the Hebrides and Mann (the Northern and Southern Isles), and ensured Norwegian control by a treaty with the Scottish king. Based on Mann during his time in the west, Magnus had a number of forts and houses built on the island and probably also obtained suzerainty of Galloway. He sailed to Wales later in his expedition, gaining the support of Anglesey (and the Gwynedd) after aiding against the invading Norman forces from the island.
Following his return to Norway, Magnus led campaigns into Dalsland and Västergötland in Sweden, claiming an ancient border with the country. After two unsuccessful invasions and a number of skirmishes Danish king Eric Evergood initiated peace talks among the three Scandinavian monarchs, fearing that the conflict would get out of hand. Magnus concluded peace with the Swedes in 1101 by agreeing to marry Margaret, daughter of the Swedish king Inge Stenkilsson. In return, Magnus gained Dalsland as part of her dowry. He set out on his final western campaign in 1102, and may have sought to conquer Ireland. Magnus entered into an alliance with Irish king Muirchertach Ua Briain of Munster, who recognised Magnus's control of Dublin. Under unclear circumstances, while obtaining food supplies for his return to Norway, Magnus was killed in an ambush by the Ulaid the next year; territorial advances characterising his reign ended with his death.
Into modern times, his legacy has remained more pronounced in Ireland and Scotland than in his native Norway. Among the few domestic developments known during his reign, Norway developed a more centralised rule and moved closer to the European model of church organisation. Popularly portrayed as a
Background
Most information about Magnus is gleaned from Norse sagas and chronicles, which began appearing during the 12th century. The most important sources still available are the Norwegian chronicles Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium by Theodoric the Monk and the anonymous Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum (or simply Ágrip) from the 1180s and the Icelandic sagas Heimskringla (by Snorri Sturluson), Morkinskinna and Fagrskinna, which date to about the 1220s. While the later sagas are the most detailed accounts, they are also generally considered the least reliable. Additional information about Magnus, in particular his campaigns, is found in sources from the British Isles, which included contemporary accounts.
Magnus was born around the end of 1073 as the only son of King
Magnus grew up among the hird (royal retinue) of his father in Nidaros (modern Trondheim), de facto capital of Norway at the time. His father's cousin, the chieftain Tore Ingeridsson, was foster-father to Magnus. In his youth, he was apparently more similar to his warlike grandfather, King Harald Hardrada, than to his father (who bore the byname Kyrre: "the Peaceful").[9] According to Snorri Sturluson, Magnus was considered handsome and gifted in learning; although he was shorter in stature than his grandfather Harald, he was reportedly known as "Magnus the Tall".[10] Magnus's more-common byname, "Barefoot" or "Barelegs", was—according to Snorri—due to his adopting the Gaelic dress of the Irish and Scots: a short tunic, which left the lower legs bare.[3][11] Another version (by Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus) maintains that he acquired the nickname because he was forced to flee from a Swedish attack in his bare feet,[12] while a third explains that he rode barefoot (like the Irish).[11] Due to Magnus's aggressive nature and his campaigns abroad, he also had the nickname styrjaldar-Magnús[3] ("Warrior Magnus"[11] or "Magnus the Strife-lover").[10]
Reign
Establishing authority
Norway had experienced a long period of peace during the reign of Magnus's father, Olaf. Magnus may have been present when Olaf died in
Magnus was opposed by his cousin
The strongman behind Haakon's monarchy had been his foster-father Tore Tordsson ("Steigar-Tore"), who refused to recognise Magnus as king after Haakon's death. With Egil Aslaksson and other noblemen, he had the otherwise-unknown Sweyn Haraldsson set up as a pretender.[3] Although later sagas maintain that Sweyn was Danish, some modern historians have speculated that he may have been a son of Harald Hardrada.[3] The revolt was based in the Uplands, but also gained support from noblemen elsewhere in the country.[25] After several weeks of fighting, Magnus captured Tore and his supporters and had them hanged on the island of Vambarholm (outside Hamnøy, Lofoten, in northern Norway). Magnus was reportedly furious because he could not pardon Egil, a potentially useful, young and resourceful nobleman. As king, his honour would only allow a pardon if other noblemen pleaded for Egil's life; this did not happen.[26]
Magnus's final domestic dispute was with the noble Sveinke Steinarsson, who refused to recognise him as king. Although Sveinke reduced piracy in Viken, he was forced into exile for three years after negotiating with Magnus's men. Since piracy increased soon after Sveinke's departure (possibly encouraged by Sveinke himself), Magnus met him in the Danish province of Halland to request his return to Norway. They reconciled; Sveinke became a loyal supporter of Magnus, now the undisputed king of Norway.[27]
Other developments
Since the Norse sources (including the skaldic verses which were the sagas' main sources) chiefly describe war-related matters, less is known about other events during the reigns of the early Norwegian kings. Snorri, for instance, wrote fifteen pages about Magnus and only two pages about Magnus's peaceful father Olaf Kyrre (despite Olaf's reign lasting almost three times longer than Magnus's). Modern historians have noted that this probably has made the image of kings like Magnus Barefoot one-sided (in Magnus's case, skewed towards his deeds as a warrior).[29]
Magnus's rule was generally marked by Norway's increasing similarity to other European kingdoms. Royal rule became established, and he consolidated power through a network of powerful noblemen (some of whom were relatives); church organisation also developed.
Through numismatics, it is known that minting reform began during Magnus's reign. The reform restored silver content in coins to around 90 percent, the level at Harald Hardrada's 1055 reform (Haraldsslåtten) which reduced silver content to about 30 percent (the remainder of the coin was copper). Coin size in Magnus's reform was reduced to .45 gram, half the previous weight. Although the silver value of a coin remained about the same, copper was not needed in coins.[31]
First Irish Sea campaign
Magnus sought to re-establish Norwegian influence around the
After his arrival, Magnus began negotiations with Scottish and Irish kings about the hird and control of land in Scotland, Ireland and the surrounding islands.
Magnus may have intended to invade Ireland next, only to find he had overextended himself.
In Scotland internal fighting continued between rival kings, although King
Campaign in Sweden
After returning to Norway, Magnus turned east. By claiming an ancient border between Norway and Sweden, he set his course for the Swedish provinces of Dalsland and Västergötland in late 1099. In Magnus's view, the border with Sweden should be set further east: at the Göta älv river, through the Vänern lake and north to the province of Värmland. He claimed all land west of Vänern (chiefly Dalsland).[60] Swedish king Inge Stenkilsson refuted the claim, and Magnus began a campaign in response. He raided his way through the forest villages, and Inge began amassing an army. When advised by his men to retreat, Magnus became more aggressive; he believed that once begun, a campaign should never be aborted.[61] In a surprise nighttime attack, Magnus assaulted Swedish forces east of Göta älv at Fuxerna (near Lilla Edet). After defeating the Swedes at Fuxerna, he conquered part of Västergötland.[62] According to a skald, Magnus conquered "fifteen hundreds from the Geats".[3] He had a wooden fort, surrounded by a moat, built on the island of Kållandsö in the southern portion of Vänern. Before returning to Norway, Magnus left 300 men on the island for the winter (led by Finn Skofteson and Sigurd Ullstreng).[63]
According to Randi Helene Førsund, the Norwegians in Kållandsö appear to have been characterized by arrogance (perhaps due to their successes under Magnus) and taunted the Swedish king for taking so long to arrive. After newly formed ice connected the island to the mainland, Inge arrived with about 3,000 men. Although he offered several times to allow the Norwegians to return home in peace (with their plunder and possessions), Inge's offers were rejected. The Swedes finally attacked, burning the fort. The Norwegians were spared and allowed to return home, after being beaten with sticks and surrendering all their possessions.[64] Angry at the humiliating defeat, Magnus planned revenge. He entered Sweden the following year, reconquering the same areas. During the hasty campaign Magnus and his men were ambushed by Swedish forces and forced to flee back to their ships, suffering heavy losses.[65] The war continued until 1100 or 1101.[66]
Danish king Eric Evergood, concerned that the conflict would escalate, began peace talks between the two kings. Relations had been strained between Denmark and Norway after Magnus's 1096 raids into Halland, and Eric feared that the conflict might spill over into his own country. The three Scandinavian kings eventually agreed to negotiate peace in the border area near Göta älv. After a constructive meeting, they agreed to preserve ancestral borders; by marrying Inge's daughter Margaret (who acquired the byname Fredkulla: "Colleen-of-Peace"), Magnus acquired the lands he claimed on behalf of his ancestors.[67] Since the marriage was childless, Dalsland never became established as a Norwegian province[3] and was returned to Sweden after his death.[68]
Second Irish Sea campaign and death
Magnus again set his course for Ireland in 1101 or 1102,
Around the same time Muirchertach married a daughter of
Muirchertach was skilled in diplomacy, and negotiation with the dowries of his daughters may have been part of a political game. While he may not have intended to honour his agreements with Magnus (or others), he needed the latter's assistance to crush Domnall.
"King Magnus had a helmet on his head; a red shield, in which was inlaid a gilded lion; and was girt with the sword of
Legbit, of which the hilt was of tooth (ivory), and handgrip wound about with gold thread; and the sword was extremely sharp. In his hand he had a short spear, and a red silk short cloak, over his coat, on which, both before and behind, was embroidered a lion in yellow silk; and all men acknowledged that they never had seen a brisker, statelier man."[88]
Magnus before the battle (according to Snorri Sturluson)
Norse sources describe a large force emerging from hiding places in an ambush. The Norwegian forces were taken by surprise, and were not in battle order. Magnus attempted to assert control over his disordered army, ordering part of his force to seize secure ground and use archery fire to slow the Irish. In the melee Magnus was pierced by a spear through both thighs above the knees but he fought on, attempting to get his men back to the level campsite. An axe-wielding Irishman charged him, striking a lethal blow to his neck.[89] When his men said that he proceeded incautiously in his campaigns, Magnus is reported to have responded "Kings are made for honour, not for long life";[90] he was the last Norwegian king to fall in battle abroad.[3]
Perhaps betrayed by Muirchertach, Magnus may also have been betrayed by his own men (in particular the contingent of nobleman Torgrim Skinnluve from the Uplands, who fled to the ships during the battle). It is possible that Torgrim and his men may have been directed by powerful men in Norway, who wanted Magnus removed from the Norwegian throne. More Irishmen than Norwegians fell in the battle, according to Snorri Sturluson, and Magnus's reign could have been different if Torgrim and his men had fought as directed.[91] Magnus's son Sigurd returned to Norway without his child bride after his father's defeat, and direct Norwegian control in the region came to an end. Although Norwegian influence remained, no Norwegian king returned for more than 150 years.[83]
Descendants
Magnus married Margaret Fredkulla, daughter of Swedish king Inge Stenkilsson, as part of the peace agreement of 1101. Their marriage did not produce any children. His three sons (who succeeded him as king) were born to different women, and he had two known daughters by unidentified women:[92]
- Eystein: Born 1089 to a mother "of low birth".
- Sigurd: Born 1090; his mother's name was Tora.
- .
- Ragnild: Married Harald Kesja, Danish pretender and son of Danish king Eric Evergood.
- Tora: Married Icelandic chieftain Loftur Sæmundsson.
Years after Magnus's death, other men came forward claiming to be his sons; however, it is impossible to ascertain the veracity of these claims:[93]
- Harald Gille: Born 1103 in Ireland, his claim was recognised by Magnus's son Sigurd.
- Sigurd Slembe: His mother was Tora Saxesdatter from Vik; his claim was not recognised (by Harald Gille).
- Magnus Raude: Mentioned only in Fagrskinna.
Aftermath
Burial
Magnus probably died in the vicinity of the River Quoile.[94] According to the Chronicles of the Kings of Mann and the Isles, Magnus was "buried near the Church of St Patrick, in Down".[95] About two miles (1.2 km) south of the cathedral on Horse Island is a mound which became known as Magnus's Grave after its identification on an 1859 map attributed to Danish archaeologist Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae. Snorri Sturluson's description of the marshy and difficult terrain where Magnus and his men were attacked fits the conditions in and around Horse Island, making it a strong candidate for the burial site. According to Finbar McCormick, the people who ambushed Magnus may not have wanted a Christian burial for him and his men, instead burying them near where they had been slain.[96] The Downpatrick runestone monument marking the site was erected in March 2003 to mark the 900th anniversary of his death.[97] The burial site is largely only accessible via the heritage railway in Downpatrick; a halt overlooking the barrow and runestone has been built and erected by Philip Campbell,[98] local viking history enthusiast, chairman and founder of the Magnus Viking Association and the Ballydugan Medieval Settlement which is located a short distance from the Runestone on the Drumcullan Road.
Succession
Magnus was succeeded peacefully by his three sons:
Relations between Harald and Magnus Sigurdsson soured, and several years later Harald had Magnus mutilated and deposed (hence his byname "the Blind"). Soon afterwards, Harald was murdered by another pretender: Sigurd Slembe, who also claimed to be a son of Magnus Barefoot and had been outlawed by Harald.[99] After Harald's death Slembe allied himself with Magnus the Blind, but they were defeated by chieftains loyal to Harald Gille's family in the Battle of Holmengrå. Magnus was killed during the battle; Sigurd was captured, tortured and executed. This began what would become the century-long Norwegian civil-war era.[99]
Legacy
The earliest-known native Irishman to have been named Magnus may have been the son of Muirchertach's greatest rival, Domnall Ua Lochlainn;[75] Magnus became a name among the Ulaid during the 12th century.[85] According to Morkinskinna, tribute from Ireland was received in Norway as late as about twelve years after Magnus's death.[100]
Magnus became the subject of at least two Gaelic ballads as the character Manus Mór. In the best-known version, he returns to Norway after an expedition to the west; he is killed in the second version. The different versions are probably derived from Magnus's two expeditions.[101] There are also traditions concerning Magnus in Scotland in legends, poems and local history.[102]
In modern times, a "Magnus Barelegs festival" has been held near Downpatrick at Delamont Country park bi-annually. Traditionally held on the last weekend of August every second year (27 and 28 August 2022) it is organised, funded and carried out by the Magnus Viking Association. [103] There is a beer named after his sword, Legbiter.[102] In Norway, according to Førsund, Magnus has "been reduced to a sigh" in history books; little remains to commemorate him.[102] When King Magnus was killed in an ambush by the Men of Ulster, his sword was retrieved and sent home.[104]
References
- ^ "Barelegs" is also often used. The various original Norse terms are berfœttr, berbeinn and berleggr (Power (1986) p. 122).
- ^ Power (1994) p. 222
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Krag, Claus. "Magnus 3 Olavsson Berrføtt – utdypning". Norsk biografisk leksikon (in Norwegian). Retrieved 6 January 2013.
- ^ Power (1986) p. 111
- ^ a b c Førsund (2012) p. 14
- ^ Larsen and Sulebust (1994) pp. 213–214
- ^ Stølen (1988) p. 259
- ^ Larsen and Sulebust (1994) p. 213
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 14–15
- ^ a b Magnus Barefoot's saga, chapter 18.
- ^ a b c "Magnus Berrføtt (Magnus III Bareleg) 1093–1103". University of Oslo Coin Cabinet. 1995.
- ^ a b c Power (2005) p. 15
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 18
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 23–25
- ^ Power (1986) p. 112
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 27
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 55
- ^ Power (1986) pp. 112–117
- ^ Krag, Claus. "Håkon Magnusson Toresfostre". Norsk biografisk leksikon (in Norwegian). Retrieved 27 February 2013.
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 27–28
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 31–33
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 29–31
- ^ Magnus Barefoot's saga, chapter 2.
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 31
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 42
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 42–47
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 47–49
- ^ Skaare (1995: 2) p. 14
- ^ Krag (1995) p. 168
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 88–91
- ^ Krag (1995) p. 215
- ^ a b c d e Oram (2011) p. 48
- ^ Power (1986) pp. 115–116
- ^ Wærdahl (2011) pp. 44–45
- ^ Power (1986) pp. 116–117
- ^ Wærdahl (2011) p. 42
- ^ a b c Power (1986) p. 118
- ^ Chronicles of the Kings of Mann and the Isles, note 9, p. 56
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 57–58
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 58
- ^ McDonald (2002) p. 70
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 58–59
- ^ McDonald (2002) p. 71
- ^ Power (2005) p. 12
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 59–60
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 61–62
- ^ a b c d e Power (1986) p. 119
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 63–65
- ^ a b c d Lloyd, J.E., A History of Wales; From the Norman Invasion to the Edwardian Conquest, Barnes & Noble Publishing, Inc. 2004
- ^ a b c Oram (2011) p. 50
- ^ Power (2005) p. 14
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 69
- ^ a b Duffy (1997) p. 110
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 70–72
- ^ Wærdahl (2011) p. 43
- ^ a b c Power (1986) p. 121
- ^ Oram (2011) pp. 49–50
- ^ Power (1986) pp. 121–122
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 73
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 92–93
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 93–94
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 94
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 94–96
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 96–100
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 100–102
- ^ Power (1986) p. 123
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 104–106
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 113
- ^ Power (1986) p. 124
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 117
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 117–118
- ^ a b Duffy (1997) p. 111
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 121
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 122
- ^ a b c d e Duffy (1997) p. 112
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 122–123
- ^ a b c Power (2005) p. 17
- ^ Power (1986) pp. 125–126
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 123–124
- ^ Power (2005) pp. 16–17
- ^ a b Førsund (2012) p. 125
- ^ McCormick (2009) p. 103
- ^ a b c d Duffy (1997) p. 113
- ^ Power (1986) pp. 127–128
- ^ a b Power (1986) p. 128
- ^ Power (1994) p. 216
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 127
- ^ Magnus Barefoot's saga, chapter 26.
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 128–131
- ^ Magnus Barefoot's saga, chapter 28.
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 129–131
- ^ Førsund (2012) pp. 113–116
- ^ Førsund (2012) p. 115
- ^ Power (1994) p. 217
- ^ McCormick (2009) p. 105
- ^ McCormick (2009) pp. 105–107
- ^ "Buildings: King Magnus's Halt". The Belfast & Co. Down Railway. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
- ^ (2022) Breen, R. "The last Viking King to Die Abroad" Downpatrick: Magnus Viking Association
- ^ a b c Arstad, Knut Peter Lyche. "eg. Gilchrist Harald 4 Gille". Norsk biografisk leksikon (in Norwegian). Retrieved 11 January 2013.
- ^ a b Power (2005) p. 18
- ^ Power (1994) p. 221
- ^ a b c Førsund (2012) p. 11
- ^ R.Breen Secretary of the Magnus Viking Association 2016 to Present
- ISBN 0-292-73061-6.
Bibliography
Primary sources
- Sturluson, Snorri (c. 1230). Magnus Barefoot's saga (in Heimskringla). English translation: Samuel Laing (London, 1844).
- Theodoric the Monk (c. 1180). The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings. English translation: David and Ian McDougall (London, 1998).
- Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum (c. 1180s). English translation: M. J. Driscoll (London, 2008).
- Chronicles of the Kings of Mann and the Isles (c. 1262). English translation: Rev. Goss (Douglas, 1874).
- Fagrskinna (c. 1220s), in Old Norse. Edited by Finnur Jónsson (Copenhagen, 1902).
- Morkinskinna (c. 1220s), in Old Norse. Edited by Finnur Jónsson (Copenhagen, 1932).
- Orkneyinga saga (c. 1230). English translation: George W. Dasent (London, 1894).
- Annals of Inisfallen. English translation (2008).
- Annals of the Four Masters. English translation (2013).
- Annales Cambriæ, in Latin. Edited by John Williams ab Ithel (London, 1860).
- Brut y Tywysogion. English translation: John Williams ab Ithel (1860).
Books
- Førsund, Randi Helene (2012). Titlestad, Bård (ed.). Magnus Berrføtt. Sagakongene (in Norwegian). Saga Bok/Spartacus. ISBN 978-82-430-0584-6.
- ISBN 82-03-22015-0.
- Larsen, Stein Ugelvik; Sulebust, Jarle (1994). I balansepunktet: Sunnmøres eldste historie (in Norwegian). Sunnmørsposten Forlag (with Studiegruppa for Sunnmøre, Universitetet i Bergen). ISBN 82-91450-00-5.
- McDonald, R. Andrew (2002). History, Literature, and Music in Scotland, 700–1560. University of Toronto. ISBN 978-0-8020-3601-8.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-1497-4.
- ISBN 82-00-22666-2.
- Skaare, Kolbjørn (1995). Norges mynthistorie (in Norwegian). Vol. 2. Universitetsforlaget. ISBN 82-00-22667-0.
- Wærdahl, Randi Bjørshol (2011). The Incorporation and Integration of the King's Tributary Lands into the Norwegian Realm c. 1195–1397. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-20613-7.
Journals
- Duffy, Seán (1992). "Irishmen and Islesmen in the Kingdoms of Dublin and Man, 1052–1171". Ériu. XLIII. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy: 93–133. JSTOR 30007421.
- McCormick, Finbar (2009). "The Grave of Magnus Barelegs" (PDF). Ulster Journal of Archaeology. 68: 102–109. ISSN 0082-7355. Archived from the original(PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
- Power, Rosemary (October 1986). "Magnus Barelegs' Expeditions to the West". The Scottish Historical Review. 65 (180, part 2). Edinburgh University: 107–132. ISSN 0036-9241.
- Power, Rosemary (October 1994). "The Death of Magnus Barelegs". The Scottish Historical Review. LXXIII, 2 (196). Edinburgh University: 216–223. ISSN 0036-9241.
- Power, Rosemary (2005). "Meeting in Norway: Norse-Gaelic relations in the kingdom of Man and the Isles, 1090–1270" (PDF). Saga-Book. XXIX (196). Viking Society for Northern Research, University College London: 5–66. ISSN 0305-9219. Archived from the original(PDF) on 12 April 2013.
- Stølen, Anders (1988). "Frå Jarleætta på Sunnmøre til Blindheim-ætta og Smør-ætta". Norsk Slekthistorisk Tidsskrift (in Norwegian). 31: 259–277. ISSN 0029-2141.
Further reading
- Beuermann, Ian (2002). Man amongst kings and bishops: what was the reason for Godred Olafsson's journey to Norway in 1152/53?. Oslo: I. Beuermann. pp. 182–191. ISBN 9788292359044.
- Christansen, Reidar T. (1931). The Vikings and Viking Wars in Irish and Gaelic Tradition. Oslo: Dybwald.
- Curphey, Robert A. (2008). Peel Castle on St. Patrick's Isle'. Manx National Heritage. ISBN 978-0-901106-59-9.
- Jesch, Judith (1996). "Norse Historical Traditions and ISBN 978-0-85115-389-6.
- Macdonald, R. Andrew (2007). Manx kingship in its Irish Sea setting, 1187–1229: King Rǫgnvaldr and the Crovan dynasty. Four Courts Press. ISBN 978-1-84682-047-2.
- Power, Rosemary (Winter 1993). "Magnus Barelegs, the War Hollow and Downpatrick". Ulster Local Studies. 15 (2): 40–54. ISSN 0266-3473.