Trade during the Viking Age
While the
Trade routes
The Vikings had a big, expansive and planned out
The Vikings also engaged in trade with merchants throughout Europe, Asia and the Far East.
Several trade routes disconnected
Trade routes would play an important role in rebuilding the economy of Europe during the Viking Age. The collapse of the Roman Empire significantly reduced the European economy. Prior to the start of the Viking Age, trade had begun to rise again. However, it was highly dependent on bartering, meaning that all trade hinged on “a double coincidence of wants”. Viking trade and raids helped reintroduce coins and other valuable goods that were either traded for or stolen back into the economy. Such goods were reintroduced into the economy through either trade or markets that were set up by the Vikings for the purpose of selling plundered objects.[1]: 123
Trading towns
At the beginning of the Viking Age, the first proper trading towns developed in Scandinavia. These appeared in central locations along Scandinavia's coasts near natural harbors or fjords. Trading centers varied in size, character, and significance. Only a select few developed into international trading posts. Every town was ruled by a king who imposed taxes on imported and exported goods in exchange for military protection of the town's citizens.[4]
The largest trading centers during the Viking Age were Ribe (Denmark), Kaupang (Norway), Hedeby (Denmark), and Birka (Sweden) in the Baltic region.[7]
Hedeby was the largest and most important trading center. Located along the southern border of Denmark in the inner part of the Schlei Fjord, Hedeby controlled both the north–south trade routes (between Europe and Scandinavia) and the east–west routes (between the Baltic and the North Seas).[5] At its peak, Hedeby's population was around 1000 people.[4] Archaeological evidence from Hedeby suggests that the city's economic importance was of political significance as fortifications were erected in the tenth century to withstand numerous assaults.[1]: 107
Ribe, located on the West coast of Denmark, was established in the early 8th century as the eastern end of a trading and monetary network that stretched around the North Sea.[7] Many of the trading towns in the Baltic would begin to disappear shortly after the year 1000 as the continent shifted to a bulk economy that minimized the role of these centres. This was also parallel with the rise of royal power in the region.[1]: 128-129
Scandinavian York (Jórvík) was a major manufacturing centre, particularly in metalwork. Archaeological evidence indicates that it had a busy international trade with thriving workshops, and well-established mints. It had several routes to Norway and Sweden with onward connections to Byzantium and the Muslim world via the Dnieper and Volga rivers. It's craftspeople sourced their raw materials both near and far. There was gold and silver coming from Europe, copper and lead from the Pennines and tin from Cornwall. Also, there was amber, for the production of jewellery, coming from the Baltic and soapstone to make large cooking pots from Norway or Shetland . Wine was imported from the Rhineland with silk for the production of hats coming from Byzantium.[8]: 71–77 [9][10]
There were also several Viking trading centers located along several rivers in modern-day Russia and Ukraine including Gorodische, Gnezdovo, Cherigov, Novgorod, and Kyiv. These towns became major trade destinations on the trading route from the Baltic Sea to Central Asia.[7]
Trade and Settlement
Viking settlements also played an important role in Viking trade. In Viking settlements such as
Goods
Imports
Silver, silk, spices, weapons, wine, glassware, quern stones (for grinding grain), fine textiles, pottery, slaves, both precious and non-precious metals.[7][15][4][16]
Exports
Honey, tin, wheat, wool, various types of fur and hides, feathers,
Coinage
Coins played an important role in Viking age trade, with many of the coins that were used by Vikings coming from the Islamic world. More than 80,000 silver Viking age Arab silver dirhams have been found in Gotland, and another 40,000 found in mainland Sweden. These numbers are likely only a fraction of the total influx of Arab currency into Viking Age Scandinavia as a great deal of silver coins were also likely melted down to make other silver objects.[1]: 103 In Iceland, archaeological evidence suggests that while coins may not have been as prevalent as they were in Scandinavia, they still played an important role in daily life and as a status symbol.[19] Coins also carried symbolic power. A series of coins minted during the 9th century that were meant to look like coins from the Carolingian empire might have been intended for use as a political symbol for resisting its reach and influence.
Furs
The fur trade was an important piece of the Viking trade network. The furs often exchanged hands through a number of intermediaries enriching each. One of the routes that furs took was south and east into the Arab world where it was often highly priced. One Arab writer states that during the 10th century that “one black pelt reaches the price of 100 dinars.”[1]: 113
Slaves
Many slaves were sold to slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate via the Bukhara slave trade because of the high demand. Many European Christians and Pagans were sold to them by the Vikings.[1]: 116 The slave trade also existed in Northern Europe as well were other Norse Men and Women were sold and held as slaves as well. Records from the life of Archbishop Timber suggest that this was quite common.[1]: 117 The Life of St. Anskar also suggests that slaves were a tradable commodity.[3]: 26 Individuals were often also held as captives for ransom instead of just being seized and sold into slavery.[6]: 11
In Northwestern Europe it is likely that Viking Age Dublin became the center of the Slave trade,[3]: 35 with one account from the Fragmentary Annals describing Vikings bringing “Blue Men” back from raids in the south as slaves. These slaves were likely Black African prisoners taken from raids in either North Africa or the Iberian peninsula.[6]: 56
People taken captive during the viking raids in Europe could be sold to
in Scandinavia and from there via theLocal Trade
Trade during the Viking Age also took place at the local level, primarily involving agriculture products such as vegetables, grains, and cereals. Domestic animals were also traded among local peoples. These items were brought into town by farmers and traded for basic necessities, such as tools and clothes, and luxury items, such as glassware and jewelry.[5]
Bullion economy
The Viking Age saw the development of a bullion economy. In this economic framework, traders and merchants exchanged goods for bullion (precious metals, primarily gold and silver). Trade was usually accomplished by barter. Bullion lacked the formal quality control linked with coinage and therefore provided a highly flexible system.[24] The durability of silver and gold made them more suited for a monetary role than many other commodities.
By the 9th century, silver had become the basis for the Viking economy. Most of the silver was acquired from the Islamic world. When the silver mines near Baghdad ran dry in the late 10th century, the Vikings began to tap central Europe, specifically the
The two types of weights imported from foreign lands were cubo-octahedral weights (Dice weights) and oblate spheroids (barrel weights). Both were produced in various sizes with markings indicating the weights they represented. The majority of imported weights came from the Islamic world and contained Arabic inscriptions.[7]
Vikings also produced their own weights for measuring quantities of silver and gold. These lead weights were decorated with enameling, insert coins, or cut up ornamental metalwork.[citation needed] Unlike the dice weights or barrel weights, each lead weight was unique so there was no danger of them being rearranged or switched during the course of an exchange.[7]
Exchange rates
Estimated exchange rates at the beginning of the 11th century in Iceland were:
- 8 ounces of silver = 1 ounce of gold
- 8 ounces of silver = 4 milk cows
- 8 ounces of silver = 24 sheep
- 8 ounces of silver = 144 ells (roughly 72 meters) of wadmal 2 ells wide (about 1 meter)
- 12 ounces of silver = 1 adult male slave[4]
If the weight of a piece of jewelry was more than needed to complete a purchase, it was cut up into smaller bits until the correct weight needed for the transaction was reached. The term hack silver is used to describe these silver objects.[24]Silver ingots were primarily used for large/high-value transactions. The largest found weights weigh more than 1 kilogram each.[25]
Precious metals were also used to display personal wealth and status. For example, Rus traders symbolized their wealth through silver neck rings.[7] Silver or gold gifts were often exchanged to secure social and political relationships.[24][25]
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Winroth, Anders (2014). The Age Of The Vikings. Princeton University Press.
- ^ Kalmring, Sven (2010). Of Thieves, Counterfeiters and Homicides: Crime in Hedeby and Birka.
- ^ a b c d e f g Wolf, Kristen (2004). Daily Life of the Vikings. Greenwood Press.
- ^ a b c d e f Short, William R. "Towns and Trading in the Viking Age". Hurstwic.org. Retrieved 19 October 2022.
- ^ a b c "Trade in the Viking Period". National Museum of Denmark. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013.
- ^ a b c d Christys, Ann (2015). Vikings In the South: Voyages to Iberia and the Mediterranean. Bloomsbury Academic.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Williams, Gareth; Pentz, Peter; Wemhoff, Matthias; Kleingärtner, Sunhild (2014). Vikings: Life and Legend. London: British Museum.
- ISBN 978-1407-31262-0.
- ^ Tweddle, Dominic (2017). "Foreign Trade" (PDF). Viking Age York: Trade. The Jorvik Viking Centre. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
- ISBN 978-0-19-956763-8. Retrieved 17 February 2023.
- ^ Downham, Clare (2014). "Viking Settlements in Ireland before 1014". In Jón Viðar Sigurðsson; Timothy Bolton (eds.). Celtic-Norse Relationships in the Irish Sea in the Middle Ages 800 - 1200. The Northern World. Vol. 65. Brill.
- ^ a b Downham, Clare (2004). "The historical importance of Viking-Age Waterford". The Journal of Celtic Studies. 4: 71–96. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
- ^ Abrams, Lesley (2013). "Early Normandy". Anglo-Norman Studies. 35: 51–52.
- S2CID 59436423.
- ^ a b "Imports in the Viking Age". National Museum of Denmark. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013.
- ^ a b Graham-Campbell, James; Williams, Gareth (2007). Silver Economy in the Viking Age. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast.
- ^ "Vikings as Traders". SWIRK. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019.
- S2CID 162119499.
- ^ Bell, Aidan (2009). Coins from Viking Age Iceland (PDF). The University of Iceland.
- ^ "The Slave Market of Dublin". 23 April 2013.
- ^ The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024. (1995). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 91
- ^ The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives. Selected Papers from the Jerusalem 1999 International Khazar Colloquium. (2007). Nederländerna: Brill. p. 232
- ^ The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 3, C.900-c.1024. (1995). Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 504
- ^ a b c Williams, Gareth. "Viking Money". BBC. Retrieved 20 October 2022.
- ^ a b "Vikings Scales and Weights". Teaching History.org. The British Museum. Retrieved 25 October 2022.