Zimbabwe and the Commonwealth of Nations
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Zimbabwe and the Commonwealth of Nations have had a controversial and stormy diplomatic relationship. Zimbabwe is a former member of the Commonwealth, having withdrawn in 2003, and the issue of Zimbabwe has repeatedly taken centre stage in the Commonwealth, both since Zimbabwe's independence and as part of the British Empire.[1]
Zimbabwe was the
The RF, under the leadership of
In later years, under the presidency of Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe dominated Commonwealth affairs, creating acrimonious splits in the organisation. Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 for breaching the Harare Declaration. In 2003, when the Commonwealth refused to lift the suspension, Zimbabwe withdrew from the Commonwealth. Since then, the Commonwealth has played a major part in trying to end the political impasse and return Zimbabwe to a state of normality.
Early history
Towards responsible government
Zimbabwe was formerly known as
In the
This, however, was unpopular amongst settlers, who, in
A status of its own
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Salisbury_in_1930.jpg/300px-Salisbury_in_1930.jpg)
Southern Rhodesia had been granted a great deal of autonomy, including powers over defence and constitutional amendment,
Indeed, the government of Southern Rhodesian itself was under the same misapprehension. Its official position, which it would hold until UDI, was that Southern Rhodesia was already a member of the Commonwealth, albeit not a Dominion.
Nonetheless, Southern Rhodesia did recognise that it had limits on its self-government. For example, foreign relations were not maintained, nor could the government change the
Bledisloe Commission
Discussions returned on the further integration of Southern Rhodesia with surrounding colonies. Plans to amalgamate with Northern Rhodesia had been rejected by the settler population in 1916 on the grounds that merger with its less developed neighbour would delay self-government.[3] However, when the Hilton Young Commission recommended in 1929 an even wider union, encompassing both central and eastern Africa, a Rhodesian union became the lesser of two evils, and jumped upon.[3]
In the face of this opposition to the recommendations of the Hilton Young Commission, in 1935, Viscount Bledisloe (newly departed Governor-General of New Zealand) was asked to evaluate the future of cooperation and combination of the colonies of central Africa.[9] The government required him to take into account the 'interests of the inhabitants, irrespective of race'. Taking four years to report, and acquiring the nickname 'Viscount Bloody-slow' for this, Bledisloe concluded that there was a single barrier to political integration: Southern Rhodesia's racist legislation.[9] Under the doctrine of non-interference that had been established, this was seen as insurmountable, putting off any political integration, yet allowing for the economic integration that Bledisloe recommended as feasible.[9]
Southern Rhodesia in the Second World War
Southern Rhodesia attempted to show its loyalty to, and independence of, the mother country by symbolically becoming the first colony to affirm the United Kingdom's declaration of war on Nazi Germany in 1939 (like other colonies, as well as Australia and New Zealand, which had not ratified the Statute of Westminster, it had no power to declare war itself).[4] It is often reported that a greater proportion of the population of Southern Rhodesia served in the war than of any other part of the Empire.[4] Even though this has become a part of nationalist folklore, this is to include only the White population (of whom, 15% served), and not the population as a whole (of whom, 2% served).[10] Nonetheless, there developed a nationalist perception that the UK and its empire owed the Southern Rhodesians a debt: which continued right up until the late 1970s.[10]
During the war, Southern Rhodesia benefited from the 'lucrativeness of loyalty', by hosting several bases of the
Central African Federation
Deliberations
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Federation_of_Rhodesia_and_Nyasaland_map_1960.jpg/320px-Federation_of_Rhodesia_and_Nyasaland_map_1960.jpg)
Click here to enlarge map.
In 1945, a Central African Council was formed as a consultative body for the three British central African territories: Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland (present-day Malawi).[12] This was the limit of the British wish for integration: fearful for the same reasons Bledisloe had been. However, the conversion in July 1948 of the Northern Rhodesian settler leadership, under Roy Welensky, to supporting federalism (from long-held support for amalgamation) promoted London to reconsider its position.[12]
When Welensky held talks with the Southern Rhodesia leadership at
The official visit of Gordon Walker to the region in early 1951 was the turning point for the United Kingdom. Startled by the strength of pro-South African support in Salisbury, Walker's report made it clear that, spurned, Southern Rhodesia could turn to outright revolt, as 'potential American colonies – very loyal, but very determined to have their own way'.[12] This, it was feared, would lead to a cataclysmic war between settler-dominated south and east Africa and native-dominated west Africa: ripping apart the nascent Commonwealth.[12] Coupled with the Baxter report from a conference of officials, the report to the cabinet stated unequivocally: "[federation is] urgently desirable in the interests of the territories (including those of the African inhabitants) and of the Commonwealth."[12]
It has been suggested that the main impetus for the British fear of South African domination of central Africa was to avoid South Africa cornering the market in various raw materials: including gold, chrome,[13] and uranium.[14]
Forming a federation
The Federation would be 'the most controversial large-scale imperial exercise in constructive state-building ever undertaken by the British government'.[12]
Towards independence?
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Rhodesia after UDI
Unilateral Declaration of Independence
But for the likely hostile reaction from the rest of the Commonwealth, and hence a threat to its very existence, it is probable that the British government would have accepted an independent Southern Rhodesia upon the death of the Federation in 1963.[3] However, the preservation of the Commonwealth was the predominant concern of the British government, and thus persevered with the gradual introduction of black majority rule to Rhodesia to avoid being forced to 'choose between Southern Rhodesia and the Commonwealth' (in Harold Macmillan's words).[3]
The 1964
On 11 November 1965, Smith issued a
Commonwealth reaction
On the day of UDI, the United Kingdom imposed the most stringent financial and economic constraints it had imposed upon any country (including
This was not enough to placate some Commonwealth members, who demanded a military response. Two, Ghana and Tanzania, even suspended diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom as a reaction to the United Kingdom's refusal to use military force to oust Smith.[3] An emergency Meeting of Commonwealth Prime Ministers convened in Lagos, Nigeria (the only one held outside London) on 10 January 1966 to address the crisis. At this meeting, Wilson pledged that sanctions imposed by the Commonwealth would bring the crisis to an end 'within a matter of weeks, not months'.[3] However, on 14 January, Wilson stated that military intervention could not be ruled out,[16] and, on 25 January, also stated that there would be no negotiations with the Rhodesian administration except on how to bring about an orderly return to direct rule.[16]
Negotiations
The
However, this movement towards negotiation and appeasement of the Salisbury regime was turned on its head over the following two years, thanks in no small part to pressure from the Commonwealth.
Beginning of the end
The hardening of the United Kingdom's line came as part of a wave of bad news for the Rhodesian regime. The
All this brought Rhodesia to the negotiating table with moderate African leaders, leading to the
Ceasefire and independence
The agreement demanded a
The resounding victory of
For its part, Mozambique was recognised as a 'cousin state' of the Commonwealth,[23] and was rewarded for its opposition to the Rhodesian regime with accession to the Commonwealth in 1995: becoming the only member without direct constitutional links to another.[23]
Zimbabwe under Mugabe
Zimbabwe and the Harare Declaration
In recent times, Zimbabwe has dominated the agendas of most
.After the Zimbabwean people rejected Mugabe's proposed new constitution in a
Initial 12-month suspension
The
On 4 March 2002 the CHOGM statement issued at Coolum, Australia implicitly rejected calls by the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand for punitive action to be taken against Zimbabwe for alleged violence and intimidation surrounding the Presidential Election Campaign. CHOGM, instead, "expressed their deep concern", and called on all parties to work together "to create an atmosphere in which there could be a free and fair election". CHOGM also “noted that a Commonwealth Observer Group would report to the Commonwealth Secretary-General immediately after the Zimbabwe presidential election of 9–10 March 2002” and confirmed their agreement to:[26]
mandate the CHOGM Chairman-in-Office as well as the former and next Chairmen-in-Office [i.e. the Troika] in close consultation with the Secretary-General and taking into account the Commonwealth Observer Group Report, to determine appropriate Commonwealth action on Zimbabwe in the event the Report is adverse...which ranges from collective disapproval to suspension
Shortly after the presidential election had concluded, the Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group was submitted to the Troika.[27] Even the Government of Zimbabwe concedes that its conclusions were “adverse”. On 19 March 2002 the Troika, being the competent Commonwealth body, suspended Zimbabwe for a 12-month period. The Zimbabwe government disputes that there were legitimate grounds for its suspension. Zimbabwe considers that the CHOGM statement only permitted the Troika to go beyond an expression of collective disapproval if something adverse was reported on in the Commonwealth Observer Group Report pertaining to the period after the CHOGM statement issued and ending at the time when the voting in the election ended (7 days in total). The Zimbabwe government considers that although adverse findings were contained in the Report, none of them related to that period and therefore the Troika did not have competence to suspend it from the Commonwealth.
Purported further suspension
Unlike all other previous Commonwealth country suspensions, Zimbabwe's was for a definite period of 12 months. In the case of a suspension for a finite period there is no need for such a suspension to be lifted. It automatically lapses unless it is renewed or extended. The Zimbabwean Government and the
Notwithstanding that there had been no Troika decision, on 12 February 2003, the Prime Minister of Australia and the Secretary General of the Commonwealth announced that Zimbabwe would remain suspended until the next CHOGM in December 2003. This “purported” further suspension was disputed by the other members of the Troika and Zimbabwe for the reasons described above. Moreover, the Southern African Development Community formally confirmed its position that Zimbabwe's one-year suspension had lapsed on 19 March 2003. This was reaffirmed at a meeting of the troika of the SADC Organ for Politics, Defence and Security — namely Lesotho (chair), Mozambique and South Africa, with Zimbabwe invited — in Pretoria in late November 2003.[28]
Final suspension and Zimbabwe’s withdrawal
Failing to get Mugabe to meet with the opposition MDC Morgan Tsvangirai, Chairperson-to-be Obasanjo refused to invite Mugabe to the CHOGM.[24]
The rest of the CHOGM's deliberations on Zimbabwe were marked by the same African disunity, foiling Mbeki's repeated attempts to have Zimbabwe readmitted. Ultimately he CHOGM rejected the Mbeki led minority group and implicitly rejected the views of the majority of the Troika that Zimbabwe's suspension had already terminated.[26] Instead, the CHOGM statement (tabled by Canada and Kenya) treated Zimbabwe as a country that was still suspended and determined to continue its suspension for an indefinite period, appointing a six-member panel to advise on the way forward. The committee, composed of the Heads of Government of South Africa, Mozambique, Nigeria, India, Jamaica, Australia, and Canada, ruled by six-to-one (South Africa being the one) against lifting Zimbabwe's suspension.[24]
Following the CHOGM, the SADC (supported by Uganda) issued a statement in which it expressed deep concern at what it called the ‘dismissive, intolerant and rigid attitude’ shown by some Commonwealth members toward Zimbabwe. SADC has consistently pleaded for greater patience and understanding of Zimbabwe, and cautioned against lecturing and hectoring.[28]
A separate and not directly related matter at the CHOGM was an attempt by Mbeki to oust Secretary-General Don McKinnon,[29] who was up for election but whom convention dictated should not be challenged.[30] However, only seven (of eighteen) African Heads of Government voted for Mbeki's candidate (along with the four South Asian countries),[24] Sri Lanka's Lakshman Kadirgamar, allowing McKinnon to win by 40 votes to 11.[29]
Zimbabwe withdraws and reaction
In an official letter to the Commonwealth Secretariat dated 11 December 2003, Zimbabwe formally terminated with effect from 7 December 2003 its membership in the Commonwealth. This confirmed President Mugabe's decision to leave the organisation following the CHOGM statement issued in Nigeria, which indefinitely suspended Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.[28] On 19 November 2003, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Zimbabwe made a detailed statement on the whole affair to the Parliament of Zimbabwe.[31]
The withdrawal marked only the third occasion (after South Africa in 1961 and Pakistan in 1971) that a country had withdrawn voluntarily, although Ireland had voluntarily declared itself a republic in 1949 thereby ending its membership, but in Ireland's case, it was before the London Declaration was enacted.[29]
Since Zimbabwe's withdrawal
The next CHOGM, held in Abuja, Nigeria, in December 2003, was once more dominated by the Zimbabwean crisis.[32] Failing to get Mugabe to meet with the opposition MDC Morgan Tsvangirai, Chairperson-to-be Obasanjo refused to invite Mugabe to the CHOGM.[24] At the CHOGM, Mbeki attempted to oust Secretary-General Don McKinnon,[29] who was up for election but whom convention dictated should not be challenged.[30] However, only seven (of eighteen) African Heads of Government voted for Mbeki's candidate (along with the four South Asian countries),[24] Sri Lanka's Lakshman Kadirgamar, allowing McKinnon to win by 40 votes to 11.[29]
The rest of the CHOGM's deliberations on Zimbabwe were marked by the same African disunity, foiling Mbeki's repeated attempts to have Zimbabwe readmitted. To resolve the impasse, Canada and Kenya proposed a committee to resolve the issue of whether to lift Zimbabwe's suspension. The committee, composed of the Heads of Government of South Africa, Mozambique, Nigeria, India, Jamaica, Australia, and Canada, ruled by six-to-one (South Africa being the one) against lifting Zimbabwe's suspension.[24] In response, Robert Mugabe announced on 7 December that Zimbabwe was withdrawing from the Commonwealth: marking only the third occasion (after South Africa in 1961 and Pakistan in 1971) that a country had withdrawn voluntarily.[29]
British
Emmerson Mnangagwa, who replaced Robert Mugabe as President of Zimbabwe in late 2017 has indicated that Zimbabwe may return to the Commonwealth in time for the 2022 Commonwealth Games in Birmingham, England, following The Gambia's return to the Commonwealth under Adama Barrow on 8 February 2018, and The Gambia's return to the Commonwealth Games Federation on 31 March 2018.
On 15 May 2018, Mnangagwa submitted an application to rejoin the Commonwealth.[38]
In February 2019, Harriett Baldwin, Minister of State for Africa & International Development, said: "As of today, the UK would not be able to support this application because we don’t believe that the kinds of human rights violations that we are seeing from security forces in Zimbabwe are the kind of behaviour that you would expect to see from a Commonwealth country." In retaliation, Mnangagwa mentioned in an interview with French TV news channel France 24 that: "The Commonwealth has never told us that they are not considering our application. The view of one member is not the view of the Commonwealth".[39]
A Commonwealth observer mission was present for the 2018 Zimbabwean general elections.
A Commonwealth obverser mission has been invited for the 2023 Zimbabwean general elections.
Footnotes
- ^ S2CID 219624218.
- ^ a b c d e f Wood (2005), p. 8
- ^ S2CID 144538905.
- ^ a b c d e f Wood (2005), p. 9
- ^ "New Dominion". Time. 24 September 1923. Archived from the original on 22 December 2008. Retrieved 24 December 2008.
- ^ JSTOR 2626673.
- ^ S2CID 154230912.
- ^ Louis et al. (1999), p. 552–3
- ^ a b c Louis et al. (1999), p. 270
- ^ a b McLaughlin, Peter (July 1978). "The Thin White Line: Rhodesia's Armed Forces since the Second World War". Journal Zambezia. 6 (2): 175–88.
- ^ S2CID 153944992.
- ^ .
- ISBN 978-0-8419-0191-9.
- S2CID 159891117.
- ^ a b "Facing the Rhodesian Crisis". The Times. 12 November 1965. p. 13.
- ^ a b c "Chronology: Rhodesia UDI: Road to Settlement". London School of Economics. Retrieved 23 December 2008.
- ^ S2CID 154277000.
- ^ "Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles 1971". Commonwealth Secretariat. 22 January 1971. Retrieved 24 December 2008.
- .
- ^ S2CID 154253142.
- .
- ^ S2CID 145292779.
- ^ S2CID 219623317.
- ^ S2CID 145081802.
- ISBN 978-0-521-58464-7.
- ^ a b The Commonwealth at the Summit – Communiques of Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings 1997 – 2005, Commonwealth Secretariat 2007
- ^ The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group, Commonwealth Secretariat
- ^ a b c SADC Barometer, January 2004 edition
- ^ S2CID 219624427.
- ^ a b Baruah, Amit (7 December 2003). "PM, Blair for representative government in Iraq soon". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 30 December 2003. Retrieved 20 December 2008.
- ^ Parliament of Zimbabwe, 19 November 2003 (Hansard) Archived June 10, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
- S2CID 219625486.
- ^ "Britain eyes Zimbabwe return to Commonwealth". Agence France-Presse. 3 April 2008. Retrieved 23 December 2008.
- ^ "EU, the Commonwealth and Zimbabwe". Harare Tribune. 20 September 2008. Retrieved 23 December 2008.
- ^ "Mugabe's Zanu-PF loses majority". BBC News. 3 April 2008. Retrieved 23 December 2008.
- ^ Chimakure, Constantine (28 February 2008). "Zim to rejoin Commonwealth – MDC". The Zimbabwe Independent. Retrieved 23 December 2008.
- S2CID 154737836.
- ^ "Zimbabwe applies to re-join Commonwealth, 15 years after leaving". CNN. 21 May 2018.
- ^ "Mnangagwa lashes out over UK's stance on Commonwealth re-entry". Times Live. 11 February 2019.
References
- Wood, J.R.T. (2005). So Far and No Further!: Rhodesia's Bid for Independence During the Retreat from Empire 1959-1965. Victoria: Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4120-4952-8.
- Louis, William Roger; Brown, Judith Margaret; Low, Alaine M.; Canny, Nicholas P.; Porter, Andrew; Marshall, Peter James; Winks, Robin W. (1999). The Oxford History of the British Empire – Volume IV: The Twentieth Century. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820564-7.