Governor-General of New Zealand

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For a list of holders of the office, see List of governors-general of New Zealand.

Governor-General of New Zealand
Te Kāwana Tianara o Aotearoa (Māori)
Badge
Flag of the governor-general
A smiling woman wearing a red dress with ribbons and badges
Incumbent
Cindy Kiro
since 21 October 2021
Viceregal
StyleHer Excellency
The Right Honourable
ResidenceGovernment House, Wellington
Government House, Auckland
SeatWellington, New Zealand
AppointerMonarch of New Zealand
on the advice of the prime minister
Term lengthAt His Majesty's pleasure
(usually 5 years by constitutional convention)
Formation3 May 1841
First holderWilliam Hobson
as Governor of New Zealand
SalaryNZ$440,000 annually[1]
WebsiteGovernor-General of New Zealand
Politics of New Zealand
Constitution
The Crown
Executive government
Legislature
54th New Zealand Parliament
Elections
Judiciary
Local government
Foreign relations
Ideology
Related topics
flag New Zealand portal

The governor-general of New Zealand

New Zealand prime minister, appoints a governor-general to carry out his constitutional and ceremonial duties within the Realm of New Zealand
.

Governors-general are typically appointed for a five-year term of office, subject to a possible short extension, though they formally serve "

at the monarch's pleasure". The incumbent governor-general is Dame Cindy Kiro, since 21 October 2021.[6] Administrative support for the governor-general is provided by the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Constitutional functions include presiding over the Executive Council, appointing ministers and judges, granting royal assent to legislation, and summoning and dissolving parliament. These functions are generally exercised only according to the advice of an elected government. The governor-general also has an important ceremonial role: hosting events at Government House
in Wellington, and travelling throughout New Zealand to open conferences, attend services and commemorations, and generally provide encouragement to individuals and groups who are contributing to their communities.

The current office traces its origins to when the administration of New Zealand was placed under the

Sir Denis Blundell became the first New Zealand resident to be appointed to the office. When travelling abroad, particularly more frequently since the late 20th century, the governor-general is seen as the national representative of New Zealand; for this reason, the governor-general has been described by academics and politicians as the de facto head of state,[8][9][10] though the Constitution Act 1986 explicitly identifies the monarch as New Zealand's head of state
.

Appointment

The monarch of New Zealand appoints the governor-general on the sole recommendation of the

prime minister of New Zealand,[11] by commission issued under the Seal of New Zealand,[7][12] known as the "Terms of Appointment".[13]

Constitutional convention adopted in 1930, following the

Sir Denis Blundell, was the first New Zealand born and resident governor-general.[16] Today, the Terms of Appointment are counter-signed by the prime minister, to signify that the prime minister is responsible for advising the sovereign on the appointment.[11]

The prime minister's advice has sometimes been the result of a decision by Cabinet;[17] there is no requirement for this, and there have been a number of instances where the governor-general was appointed with no consultation of Cabinet.[16] Since 1980, the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet prepares a short list of candidates for the office.[18] By convention, the leader of the Opposition is consulted on the appointment;[19] this has not always been the case.[16]

Sir Keith Holyoake, a former prime minister, was a controversial choice as Governor-General.[20]

On only one occasion has the prime minister's choice of appointee aroused public anger or complaint, and that controversy was short-lived.[18] In 1977, Sir Keith Holyoake, a former National Party prime minister and a serving minister of state, was controversially appointed as governor-general.[21] The Leader of the Opposition, Bill Rowling, complained he had not been consulted by Prime Minister Robert Muldoon on the appointment of Holyoake,[15] and openly suggested that he would have recommended Sir Edmund Hillary instead.[22] (Rowling's remark was in turn criticised by the Government, as Hillary had backed the opposition Labour Party in 1975 as part of the "Citizens for Rowling" campaign.[23]) It was suggested by many commentators that it would be inappropriate to entrust the office to a former party leader or anyone who is closely allied with a political party; despite his background, Holyoake could not be said to have discharged his duties in a partisan way, and he stayed in office for only three years.[21][19] Since Holyoake's appointment, the prime minister is now meant to consult with the leader of the opposition during the nomination process, to avoid partisan controversy,[19] and informally seek approval for the appointment from the monarch.[16] The decision is then kept confidential until both the New Zealand Government and Buckingham Palace (the royal household) announce the appointment simultaneously.[16]

Beginning with the appointment of

Sir David Beattie in 1980, lawyers and judges have predominated as governors-general.[24] Following the introduction of MMP in 1996, it has been determined that an understanding of constitutional law is an important prerequisite for candidacy to the office.[18] The first governor-general to preside over a MMP general election was Sir Michael Hardie Boys, a retired high court judge. Hardie Boys was appointed in 1995 on the advice of then prime minister Jim Bolger, following notification of all leaders of parties then represented in parliament, to ensure broad cross-party support.[25] Following Hardie Boys' appointment other party leaders are only notified very shortly before the announcement is made, if at all.[25]

There has been on-and-off speculation that a member of the

Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, to be the next governor-general.[26]

Swearing-in ceremony

See also: Oath of Allegiance (New Zealand) § Governor-General's Oath
Governor-General Dame Patsy Reddy (right) takes the affirmation after being sworn in by the Chief Justice, Dame Sian Elias, on 28 September 2016

The commission of appointment is publicly read in the presence of the chief justice and the members of the Executive Council before the governor-general enters office. The chief justice or other High Court judge then administers the Oath (or Affirmation) of Allegiance, and the Oath (or Affirmation) of Office to the governor-general.[27][7]

Election proposals

From time to time, there have been proposals to elect the governor-general. When first drafted by then Governor George Grey, the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 contained a provision for the governor to be elected by New Zealand's parliament. This provision was removed from the final enactment, probably because the Colonial Office wanted to keep a check on New Zealand's colonial government. In 1887, Sir George Grey, by then also a former premier, moved the Election of Governor Bill to make the office of governor an elective position. The Bill was narrowly defeated 46–48, being opposed by the government of Harry Atkinson.[28] In 1889, Grey tried again with another bill, which if passed would have allowed for a "British subject" to be elected to the office of governor "precisely as an ordinary parliamentary election in each district."[29]

In 2006, political commentator

Solomon Islands are nominated in such a way. Constitutional law specialist Professor Noel Cox, who is a former chair of Monarchy New Zealand, criticised the proposal, claiming that "[g]iving the Governor-General a new and separate source of democratic legitimacy could result in a separation between Ministers and Governors-General. (...) the Governors-General would have their own independent popular mandate, and become potential political rivals of the Ministers".[31]

In February 2008, the New Zealand Republic proposed electing the governor-general as an interim step to a republic, arguing "Electing the Governor-General allows for easier transition to a republic because the populace is used to electing someone as a ceremonial de facto head of state."[32] With the introduction of the Governor-General Act 2010, Green MP Keith Locke suggested parliament recommend the next governor-general's appointment to the Queen, with a recommendation endorsed by three-quarters of parliament.[33] In its submission to the select committee considering the Bill, the Republican Movement suggested parliament appoint the next governor-general with a three-quarters majority plus a majority of party leaders in parliament, with a similar dismissal process and a fixed five-year term.[34] National MP Nikki Kaye queried whether several one-member parties in parliament could veto the decision, which could give them too much power if an appointment was based on one vote per leader. The Republican Movement responded that the method would ensure appointments were made that most MPs and parties found acceptable.[34]

Tenure

The governor-general holds office

Dame Silvia Cartwright would have been in office for five years on 4 April 2006, but her term as governor-general was extended by four months as Prime Minister Helen Clark deemed that "the selection and appointment process [of a new governor-general] [should] not coincide with the pre-election period".[35]

Administrator of the Government

A vacancy will occur on the resignation, death, incapacity or absence from New Zealand territory of the governor-general. In the absence of a governor-general the

New Zealand judiciary who is able so to act is appointed as administrator.[7]

Prior to the granting of

responsible government in 1856, the colonial secretary acted as administrator when a governor was absent.[38]

Dismissal

The prime minister may

advise the monarch to dismiss (recall) the governor-general.[39] As no New Zealand governor-general has ever been dismissed on the advice of the prime minister, it is unclear how quickly the monarch would act on such advice. Some constitutional lawyers dispute whether the monarch would implement such advice at all, while others argue that they would delay its implementation. Others argue that the monarch would be obliged to follow the prime minister's advice (so long as the prime minister has the confidence of the House of Representatives), and further that the monarch would be bound to implement the prime minister's advice immediately if so advised.[40]

Critics (such as supporters of a New Zealand republic) have described the ability of the prime minister to advise the monarch to recall the governor-general as a flaw in New Zealand's constitutional makeup that gives the governor-general and the prime minister the ability to dismiss one another.[41] They argue that this flaw is exacerbated by the reluctance of the monarch or their representatives to become politically involved.[41]

Three 19th-century New Zealand governors were recalled from office:

Sir George Grey.[44] All three governed before the institution of responsible government in New Zealand; they were dismissed on the advice of the British (Imperial) government.[45]

Functions

The governor-general's functions can be informally divided into three areas: constitutional, ceremonial and community.[4] By constitutional convention, the governor-general is "above party politics" and not involved in the day to day decision making of government.[16]

Constitutional role

See also: Monarchy of New Zealand § Constitutional role
Governor-General Sir Jerry Mateparae performs a hongi with the Prime Minister at his swearing-in ceremony outside parliament, 31 August 2011

The

Royal Prerogative (royal powers), including the reserve powers, on behalf of the sovereign.[45] All of the executive authority of the New Zealand monarch (except for the appointment of the governor-general) is delegated to the governor-general by the sovereign under the Letters Patent 1983:[47]

...We do hereby authorise and empower Our Governor-General, except as may be otherwise provided by law,— (a) to exercise on Our behalf the executive authority of Our Realm of New Zealand, either directly or through officers subordinate to Our Governor-General; and (b) for greater certainty, but not so as to restrict the generality of the foregoing provisions of this clause, to do and execute in like manner all things that belong to the Office of Governor-General including the powers and authorities hereinafter conferred by these Our Letters Patent.

— Section 3 of the Letters Patent 1983[7]

When he is present in New Zealand the King may exercise his powers personally.[46]

Every power conferred on the Governor-General by or under any Act is a royal power which is exercisable by the Governor-General on behalf of the Sovereign, and may accordingly be exercised either by the Sovereign in person or by the governor-general.

— Section 3 of the Constitution Act[46]

Further constitutional duties are outlined in the Constitution Act.[46]

The governor-general is a nominal chief executive, acting within the constraints of constitutional convention and precedent. Although the governor-general's powers are in theory extensive, they are in practice very limited;[48] most political power is exercised by the New Zealand Parliament (which is composed of the Governor-General-in-Parliament and the House of Representatives), through the prime minister and Cabinet.[49] The governor-general does use a number of remaining powers, but almost always on the formal advice of the prime minister and other ministers.[48] Ministers are, in turn, accountable to the democratically elected House of Representatives, and through it, to the people.[50] (The governor-general may refuse to follow ministerial advice only in the event that the prime minister loses the confidence of the House of Representatives.[12]) Even when appointing a prime minister, the governor-general rarely exercises discretion; constitutional conventions dictate that they appoint the individual most likely to maintain the House of Representatives' support, usually the leader of the largest party among those forming the government.[51]

Role in executive government

See also: New Zealand Government
Governor-General Dame Patsy Reddy presides over the swearing in of the new Sixth Labour Government on 26 October 2017

The governor-general appoints and dismisses Cabinet ministers and other ministers, but exercises such a function only on the prime minister's advice. Thus, in practice, the prime minister, and not the governor-general, exercises complete control over the composition of the Cabinet. The governor-general may, in theory, unilaterally dismiss a prime minister, but convention and precedent bar such an action.[52]

The governor-general presides over, but is not a member of, the

Orders in Council (to make, for example, regulations or appointments), which operate under the authority of "the Governor-General in Council".[53]

Every reference in any Act to the Governor-General in Council or any other like expression includes a reference to the Sovereign acting by and with the advice and consent of the Executive Council.

— Section 3 of the Constitution Act[46]

The governor-general also has custody of the Seal of New Zealand for all official instruments of His Majesty's Government in New Zealand.[54]

Role in the New Zealand Parliament

Governor-General Sir Jerry Mateparae reads a speech from the throne at the opening of parliament, 2011

The governor-general summons and

Legislative Council Chamber, outlining the Government's legislative agenda.[55] Dissolution ends a parliamentary term (which lasts a maximum of three years), and is followed by a general election for all seats in the House of Representatives.[n 3] These powers are almost always exercised on the advice of the prime minister, who also determines the date of an election. The governor-general may theoretically refuse a dissolution, but the circumstances under which such an action would be warranted are unclear.[45] It might be justified if a minority government had served only briefly and another party or coalition seemed likely to have better success in holding the confidence of the House.[n 4]

People tend to think the office of the governor-general is of little significance, which is wrong, or that it represents a substantial check on the excesses of executive government, which is also wrong.

— Sir Geoffrey Palmer[58]

Before a bill can become law, the

Royal Assent is required. The governor-general acts on the monarch's behalf and grants Royal Assent (making the bill law). By modern constitutional convention, the Royal Assent is invariably granted, and bills are never disallowed.[52] A law comes into effect from the date the governor-general signs the bill.[59]

Reserve powers

The governor-general acts with the advice of the prime minister, unless the prime minister has lost the confidence of the House of Representatives.[60] These are the so-called 'reserve powers'. These powers include the ability to:

  • Dissolve or prorogue parliament;
  • Appoint or dismiss the prime minister;
  • Refuse a prime minister's request for a dissolution;
  • Refuse assent to legislation.[45][61]

The exercise of the above powers is a matter of continuing debate. Constitutional commentators believe that the governor-general (or the sovereign) does not have the power to refuse the Royal Assent to legislation — former law professor and Prime Minister Sir Geoffrey Palmer and Professor Matthew Palmer argue that any refusal of the Royal Assent would cause a constitutional crisis.[58] Constitutional lawyers, such as Professor Philip Joseph, believe the governor-general does retain the power to refuse the Royal Assent to bills in exceptional circumstances, such as the abolition of democracy.[62] The Parliamentary Library notes that due to constitutional convention, the ability to withhold assent has been rendered ineffective, stating "...a Governor-General's powers to withhold the Royal assent to Bills (essential for legislation to be enacted) has been rendered ineffective by convention."[63]

As with other Commonwealth realms, the governor-general's exercise of the Royal Prerogative under the reserve powers is non-justiciable;[64] that is, they cannot be challenged by judicial review, unlike the actions of other members of the executive (such as the Prime Minister in Fitzgerald v Muldoon[65]).

The Queen has the power to appoint and dismiss Ministers and other important office holders, summon and dissolve Parliament, assent to Bills passed by the House of Representatives, and agree to regulations and Orders submitted by Ministers through Executive Council. The Queen delegates most of her powers to her representative, the Governor-General. While the Queen and her representative exercise these powers as a matter of law, as a matter of convention, both the Queen and the Governor-General act on the advice of the democratically elected government, in all but the most exceptional circumstances.

— Former Governor-General
Dame Silvia Cartwright[66]

Prerogative of mercy

The governor-general also exercises the royal prerogative of mercy, an ancient right of convicted persons to seek a review of their case where they allege an injustice may have occurred. The prerogative of mercy can be exercised where a person claims to have been wrongly convicted or wrongly sentenced.[67][68]

The governor-general acts on the advice of the

David Bain was granted such an appeal to the Court of Appeal, which in turn was appealed to the Privy Council.[69]

Ceremonial role

Governor-General Sir Michael Hardie Boys receives US President Bill Clinton at Government House, Wellington, 11 September 1999
Governor-General Dame Patsy Reddy and her husband Sir David Gascoigne with Governor-General of Australia David Hurley and Linda Hurley in 2021

With most constitutional functions lent to the Government, the governor-general is particularly invested in a representative and ceremonial role. The extent and nature of that role has depended on the expectations of the time, the individual in office at the time, the wishes of the incumbent government, and the individual's reputation in the wider community. The governor-general will host the monarch or their family, as well as foreign royalty and heads of state, and will represent New Zealand abroad on

New Zealand ambassadors and consuls,[72] as authorised by the Letters Patent.[7]

Increasingly, the governor-general is personally accorded the same respect and privileges of a head of state. This is particularity true when the governor-general visits other nations or receives heads of states.[73] Prior to the Lomé Convention in February 1975, the Queen, rather than the governor-general, would sign treaties on behalf of New Zealand. Following the signing of the convention, the Queen granted "full powers" to the governor-general to sign such instruments.[74]

Under the Defence Act 1990 and letters patent the governor-general is also the titular commander-in-chief of the Defence Force.[75] The position technically involves issuing commands for New Zealand troops, though the governor-general only acts on the advice of the minister of defence and other ministers.[76][77] In practice, the commander-in-chief is a ceremonial role in which the governor-general will see troops off to and return from active duty and visit military bases in New Zealand and abroad to take part in military ceremonies.[77]

Community role

The governor-general provides leadership in the community. Governors-general are always the patrons of many charitable, service, sporting and cultural organisations.

grand masters of the Freemasons,[78] and they included visits to lodges as a part of their tours of the country.[81] The governor-general has also had a long association with the Order of St John, traditionally serving as prior in New Zealand.[82]

Many of the governor-general's community functions have a ceremonial dimension, such as attendance at the official openings of buildings, addresses to open conferences, or launching special events and appeals. The governor-general attends state banquets and receptions, making and hosting state visits, meeting ceremonial groups, and awarding medals and decorations.[83] As well as attending public events, the governor-general hosts many community functions at Government House, Wellington, such as a garden reception to mark Waitangi Day.[84] According to the official website of the governor-general, in a typical year over 15,000 people will attend such events.[78]

Starting from New Year's Day 2009, the governor-general issues a New Year's Message to bring to attention issues New Zealanders might consider as they look to the future.[85]

Salary and privileges

Government House, Wellington, the primary residence of the governor-general
Jaguar XJ8. During official travel it is the only vehicle in the country not required to use standard number plates.[86]

Cost

The New Zealand Government pays for the costs associated with the governor-general. Monarchy New Zealand states "[t]his figure is about one dollar per person per year", about $4.3 million per annum.[87] An analysis by New Zealand Republic of the 2010 budget shows the office of governor-general costs New Zealand taxpayers about $7.6 million in ongoing costs and $11 million for Government House upgrades, a total of $18.6 million.[88] These figures are disputed by Monarchy New Zealand, who claim New Zealand Republic "arbitrarily inflated the cost of the Governor-General".[89]

Salary

As of 2024, the annual salary is NZ$440,000,[1] which is subject to income tax from 2010.[90] Until the end of Sir Anand Satyanand's term, the salary of governor-general was regulated by the Civil List Act 1979. From the start of Sir Jerry Mateperae's term, the Governor-General Act 2010 applies.[91]

Residences and household

The governor-general's main residence is

Prince Charles opened a visitor centre at Government House in Wellington to mark the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II.[94]

The viceregal household aids the governor-general in the execution of the royal constitutional and ceremonial duties and is managed by an

official secretary to the governor-general.[95] All of the governor-general's staff are public servants within the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet.[96]

Transport

Since the 1960s the New Zealand Government has supplied Government House with an

Jaguar XJ8, which was purchased in 2003 for about NZ$160,000. The Jaguar was auctioned off in August 2011.[98]

Symbols

Military personnel holding the governor-general's flag. This flag was first flown on 5 June 2008.

The

New Zealand coat of arms surmounted by a crown in the centre.[99][100] It takes precedence over the national flag.[101] The national flag is generally employed when the governor-general undertakes a state visit abroad. The national flag is also flown at half-mast upon the death of an incumbent or former governor-general.[102]

The design of the flag, with the shield and crown in the centre, mirrors the collar badge of the New Zealand Order of Merit which can only be worn by the sovereign and the governor-general.[99]

A viceregal

salute, composed of the first six bars of "God Save the King", is used to greet the governor-general upon arrival at, and mark their departure from most official events.[103]

Precedence and titles

In the

The Right Honourable" for life upon assuming the office.[105] From 2006, former living governors-general were entitled to use the style "the Honourable", if they did not already hold the title or the higher appointment of Privy Counsellor.[66]

The incumbent governor-general uses the titles of Chancellor and Principal Knight or Dame Grand Companion of the

King's Service Order.[107] The governor-general is titled Sir or Dame.[108]

Official dress

Lord Islington in the traditional ceremonial uniform

The governor-general is entitled to a special

Royal Arms; bullion-edged epaulettes on the shoulders; dark navy trousers with a wide band of silver oak-leaf braid down the outside seam; silver sword belt with ceremonial sword; bicorne cocked hat with plume of ostrich feathers; black patent leather Wellington boots with spurs, etc.[109] There is also a tropical version made of white tropical wool cut in a typical military fashion worn with a plumed helmet.[110]

This dress has fallen into disuse since the 1980s. Initially this was due to

Sir Paul Reeves, as a cleric, choosing not to wear a military uniform. Although not specifically colonial, the traditional dress was abandoned as overt reminders of a colonial legacy.[110] Usually the governor-general will now wear a black lounge jacket with morning dress trousers for men or formal day dress for ladies (or military uniform if they are already entitled to it) for ceremonial occasions and normal day dress at other times. The undress form of the uniform is still worn on rare occasions, such as when the governor-general visits military bases.[110]

History

Governors

Document appointing William Hobson as Lieutenant Governor of New Zealand in 1839
William Hobson, first Governor of New Zealand

From 1832

settlers keen to buy their land, with very limited financial and military resources at his disposal. Outbreak of the first armed conflicts of the New Zealand Wars and FitzRoy's siding with Māori claims against the New Zealand Company and its settlers over land deals led to his recall by the Colonial Office in 1845.[112]

Sir George Grey, twice Governor of New Zealand and later Premier
Hercules Robinson, 1st Baron Rosmead Proclamation as Governor (1879)

FitzRoy's replacement,

lieutenant-governor for each of the provinces: George Dean Pitt for the New Ulster Province and Robert Wynyard for the New Munster Province.[114] The office of lieutenant-governor was superseded by elected superintendents with the implementation of the 1852 Constitution Act, in 1853.[115]

The task of overseeing the transition to a responsible government was left to Robert Wynyard, as the administrator of the Government, who opened the 1st New Zealand Parliament on 24 May 1854.[116] Wynyard was quickly confronted by the demands from members of parliament for the ability to select ministers from among their number—rather than the governor deciding. The parliament passed a resolution to that effect on 2 June. Wynyard and the Executive Council of New Zealand refused to allow this, stating that the Colonial Office made no mention of responsible government in its dispatches. Wynyard then offered to add some elected members of parliament to the Executive Council, which he did—a compromise that worked for a few weeks, until on 1 August 1854, parliament again demanded complete power to appoint ministers. Wynyard refused and prorogued parliament for two weeks. Then on 31 August, he appointed more elected members to the Executive Council, but when Parliament met again on 8 August 1855, it moved a motion of no confidence in the members. Fortunately for Wynyard the next governor, Sir Thomas Gore Browne, arrived on 6 September 1855. Gore Browne's tenure saw the introduction of responsible government, which constrained the powers of the governor,[117] who now had to work with a premier and their ministers. In the following years, Gore Browne and Premier Edward Stafford clashed over whether the governor (and hence the imperial government) had control over Māori affairs, a key issue at the time with the ongoing New Zealand Wars. Stafford began the practice of Cabinet meeting independently of the Executive Council, further reducing the influence of the governor.[118] Sir George Grey returned to New Zealand in 1861 for a second term. Grey struggled to meet the competing demands of the colonial and British governments. The New Zealand Wars had brought many thousands of British troops to New Zealand, and fearing further fighting Grey, with the support of Edward Stafford, evaded Colonial Office instructions to finalise their return to Britain. In the end, the Colonial Office recalled Grey in February 1868.[119]

After Grey, successive governors of New Zealand were derived from the British aristocracy and played a much less active role in government.

Wi Parata v the Bishop of Wellington), acting as the administrator, to order the invasion of the Māori pacifist Te Whiti o Rongomai's village at Parihaka, something the Governor had indicated he was opposed to.[122]

Governors-General

British subjects

In 1907

dominions), with the Earl of Liverpool, the serving governor, becoming the first to be titled governor-general.[124]

In 1926, following the

Second World War with the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947 being passed on 25 November 1947.[125]

Despite adopting the statute later than most other Commonwealth realms, the functions of the governor-general in representing the British government were gradually reduced prior to the statute passing. For example, beginning in 1939, the

high commissioner of the United Kingdom to New Zealand replaced the governor-general as the foremost diplomatic representative of the British government in New Zealand.[45]

In 1945, New Zealand Prime Minister

Foreign Office (and the predecessor Colonial Office) in consultation with the New Zealand prime minister, who then recommended appointments to the sovereign.[126]

New Zealand citizens

Dame Catherine Tizard, the first female governor-general, appointed in 1990

During the 1960s, the British government made strong overtures that the appointment of the governor-general should be made by the New Zealand prime minister and the monarch.

Gallup poll for the Auckland Star newspaper found 43 percent of respondents preferred Britons for the role, while 41 percent favoured New Zealanders and 6 percent candidates from other Commonwealth countries.[15]
In 1967 the first New Zealand-born governor-general, Sir Arthur Porritt (later Lord Porritt), was appointed to the office, on the advice of the New Zealand Prime Minister, Keith Holyoake.[24] Porritt's appointment was followed by Sir Denis Blundell in 1972, who was the first fully New Zealand-resident governor-general.[128] The appointment of New Zealand citizens and residents led to concerns that the constitutional convention that governors-general remain "above party politics" might be compromised,[16] especially with the appointment of former prime minister Sir Keith Holyoake to the role in 1977.[129] Despite this appointment, Holyoake was said to have acted in an impartial way, especially following the very close 1981 general election.[130]

In 1983,

letters patent were issued once again, further reducing the powers of the office.[131] The new letters patent were counter-signed by the New Zealand Prime Minister, symbolising the "patriation" of the office.[24] The governor-general now presided over the "Realm of New Zealand" instead of the "Dominion of New Zealand".[131]

Following the 1984 constitutional crisis, the 1852 Constitution Act was replaced by the Constitution Act 1986 and the governor-general's powers further limited. For example, section 16 of the 1986 act significantly narrowed section 56 of the 1852 act so that the governor-general has much less discretion to refuse Royal Assent to bills of parliament.[46][132]

With the patriation of the office came an expectation that the officeholders would be representative of New Zealanders generally;

Sir Anand Satyanand (2006–11) was the first Governor-General of Indian and Pasifika descent,[135] and the first Roman Catholic to hold the office.[136]

D-Day
commemoration in the United Kingdom on 4 June 2019. The governor-general often represents New Zealand at gatherings of national leaders.

Beginning in the late 20th century, the governor-general has been performing more and more of the head of state's functions, such as travelling overseas, representing all New Zealanders at major international events and generally promoting New Zealand interests abroad.

Dame Catherine Tizard on a State Visit for the Seville Expo '92.[138] Advisers at Buckingham Palace stated that Elizabeth II was unable to travel abroad in her capacity as the queen of New Zealand.[138] As a compromise, the Palace agreed that governors-general could accept invitations for state visits,[139] but that it must be made clear that the governor-general is the sovereign's representative.[137] At the 2007 commemorations of the Battle of Passchendaele, Governor-General Anand Satyanand represented New Zealand[140] on behalf of the Queen, while the Queen herself represented the United Kingdom.[141]

virtual meeting
with the Queen in 2021

Reform of the office is usually only mentioned in the context of a

Dame Silvia Cartwright following a political controversy over prison sentences, stated "[o]ne of the challenges for us is we clearly are no longer a dominion of Britain where the Governor-General is exactly like the Queen. I think we need to consider how the role of Governor-General might evolve further. As you know, my view is that one day there will be a president fulfilling the kind of role the Governor-General does."[143] Others, such as Professor Noel Cox have argued that the governor-general's role needs to be updated, rather than reforming the office.[31]

Some constitutional academics expressed concern that the process of

Sir Michael Hardie Boys clarified how he would use his powers in the case of an unclear electoral result; he maintained that politicians must decide who would govern, and only after a public announcement of their decision would he appoint a prime minister.[146]

In December 2009 a review of the Civil List Act 1979 by the Law Commission recommended that part 1 of the act be repealed, and replaced with a new Governor-General Bill to reflect the nature of the modern office of governor-general. The most significant change would be that the governor-general was no longer exempt from paying income tax on their salary. The changes proposed in the report would take effect for the appointment and term of the next governor-general.[147] The bill was introduced into the House of Representatives on 28 June 2010[148] and was granted Royal Assent on 22 November 2010.[149]

In 2020 a poll by

Curia, commissioned by New Zealand Republic, found 32 percent of New Zealanders thought the governor-general was the head of state, and only 18 percent could name the Queen as New Zealand's head of state (25 percent answered that it was the prime minister).[150]

See also

References

Footnotes

  1. capitalised
    when used in the formal title preceding an incumbent's name.
  2. ^ The monarch's principal residence is in the UK. The King and other members of his family have occasionally toured New Zealand.[5]
  3. ^ The governor-general issues a writ giving permission for an election to be held. Following the election, the writ is returned to the clerk of the House of Representatives with the names of all successful candidates who have been elected to electorate seats.[56]
  4. Sir Robert Stout to the Governor-General, Viscount Jellicoe, in 1923, that "unless the Governor-General was satisfied that a stable Government could be formed as [an] alternative to the present Government it would be proper to grant a dissolution if requested by the Prime Minister"[57]
  5. ^ Before a 2006 reform of the letters patent, the governor-general had to ask the monarch's permission, via the prime minister, before leaving New Zealand.[71]

Citations

  1. ^ a b "Governor-General (Salary) Determination 2023". legislation.govt.nz. Parliamentary Counsel Office. 2023. Retrieved 5 March 2024.
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