Asimina triloba
Asimina triloba | |
---|---|
In fruit | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Magnoliids |
Order: | Magnoliales |
Family: | Annonaceae |
Genus: | Asimina |
Species: | A. triloba
|
Binomial name | |
Asimina triloba | |
Natural range |
Asimina triloba, the American papaw, pawpaw, paw paw, or paw-paw, among many regional names, is a small
The pawpaw is a
Pawpaw fruits are sweet, with a custard-like texture, and a flavor somewhat similar to banana, mango, and pineapple. They are commonly eaten raw, but are also used to make ice cream and baked desserts. However, the bark, leaves, fruit, and seeds contain the potent neurotoxin annonacin.[11]
Names
This plant's
The common name of this species is variously spelled pawpaw, paw paw, paw-paw, and papaw. It probably derives from the Spanish papaya, an American tropical and subtropical fruit (Carica papaya) sometimes also called "papaw",[16] perhaps because of the superficial similarity of their fruits and the fact that both have very large leaves. The name pawpaw or papaw, first recorded in print in English in 1598, originally meant the giant herb Carica papaya or its fruit (as it still commonly does in many English-speaking communities, including Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa). Daniel F. Austin's Florida Ethnobotany[17] states that:
The original "papaw" ... is Carica papaya. By 1598, English-speaking people in the Caribbean were calling these plants "pawpaws" or "papaws" ... [yet later, when English-speakers settled in] the temperate Americas, they found another tree with a similarly aromatic, sweet fruit. It reminded them of the "papaya", which had already become "papaw", so that is what they called these different plants ... By 1760, the names "papaw" and "pawpaw" were being applied to A. triloba.
Yet A. triloba has had numerous local common names, many of which compare it to a banana rather than to Carica papaya. These include wild banana, prairie banana, Indiana banana,
Several tribes of Native Americans have terms for the pawpaw such as riwahárikstikuc (Pawnee),[20] tózhaⁿ hu (Kansa),[21] and umbi (Choctaw).[22]
Description
A. triloba is a large shrub or small tree growing to a height of 35 ft (11 m), rarely as tall as 45 ft (14 m), with trunks 8–12 in (20–30 cm) or more in diameter. The large leaves of pawpaw trees are clustered symmetrically at the ends of the branches, giving a distinctive imbricated appearance to the tree's foliage.[13][23]
The
Pawpaw
The fruit of the pawpaw is a large, yellowish-green to brown berry, 2–6 in (5–15 cm) long and 1–3 in (3–8 cm) broad, weighing from 0.7–18 oz (20–510 g), containing several brown or black seeds 1⁄2–1 in (15–25 mm) in diameter embedded in the soft, edible fruit pulp. The conspicuous fruits begin developing after the plants flower; they are initially green, maturing by September or October to green, yellowish green, or brown. When mature, the heavy fruits bend the weak branches down. Full ripening often happens only after the fruit falls naturally, thus signifying a seed dispersal strategy aimed at ground-based, rather than arboreal, mammals.[3][13][23][25]
Other characteristics:
- Calyx: Sepals three, valvate in bud, ovate, acuminate, pale green, downy[13][23]
- Corolla: Petals six, in two rows, imbricate in the bud; inner row acute, erect, nectariferous; outer row broadly ovate, reflexed at maturity; petals at first are green, then brown, and finally become dull purple or maroon and conspicuously veiny[13][23]
- Stamens: Indefinite, densely packed on the globular receptacle; filaments short; anthers extrorse, two-celled, opening longitudinally[23]
- Pollen: Shed as permanent tetrads[26]
- Pistils: Several, on the summit of the receptacle, projecting from the mass of stamens; ovary one-celled; stigma sessile; ovules many[23]
- Branchlets: Light brown, tinged with red, marked by shallow grooves[23]
- Winter buds: Small, of two kinds, the leaf buds pointed and closely appressed to the twigs, and the flower buds round, brown, and fuzzy[13]
- Bark: Light gray, sometimes blotched with lighter gray spots, sometimes covered with small excrescences, divided by shallow fissures; inner bark tough, fibrous; bark with a very disagreeable odor when bruised[13][23]
- Wood: Pale, greenish yellow, sapwood lighter; light, soft, coarse-grained and spongy with a
- Longevity of fruit production: Undetermined[27]
Range and ecology
Asimina triloba is a member of the Annonaceae family, commonly referred to as the “custard-apple” or “soursop” family. Annonaceae are a diverse group comprising the single largest family of the order Magnoliales. They are a tropical family consisting of 112 accepted genera with about 2,200 species spread primarily across South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia.[28]
The pawpaw is an exception to this pattern, as it is the most temperate member of its family. Its range extends as far north as the southern portion of
Hybridization with other Asimina species
The common pawpaw is the largest and most well known of the 13 species of the Asimina genus in North America. Of those 13, 11 prefer very warm weather and have ranges rarely extending northward of Florida or coastal Alabama. Their ranges do not overlap with Asimina triloba.[citation needed]
One southern USA species,
Pollination
Pawpaw are self-incompatible, meaning pollen cannot fertilize flowers on the same plant.[33] This, coupled with the pawpaw's tendency to form clonal patches can reduce fertilization success. A single patch consisting of many stems may therefore produce no fruit if all stems are genetically identical. Fruitless pawpaw patches have been documented in Ohio.[34]
The floral scent of Asimina triloba has been described as "yeasty", which is one of several features that signify a "beetle
Beetles are the dominant form of pollinator ascribed for genera and species within the Annonaceae family. However, two species of genus Asimina (Asimina triloba and Asimina parviflora) bear a floral character that has given rise to an alternative hypothesis that carrion or dung flies are their effective pollinators. That floral characteristic is the dark maroon color of the petals.[39][40] Hence, while no scholarly papers have documented carrion or dung flies as effective pollinators in field observations, the strength of this hypothesis has led to placement of carrion during the bloom time in pawpaw orchards by some horticultural growers.[8][41]
Professional papers on genus Asimina and its species have warned of the difficulties in discerning whether insects observed on or collected from flowers are effective pollinators or merely casual and thus opportunistic visitors.[40][42][43]
A citizen science project in southern Michigan utilized natural history forms of observation, along with video and photo documentation, during a "pawpaw pollinator watch" in May 2021.[38] Two species of tiny sap beetle were reported as the most abundant and the most consistently present insect types at depth within the flowers, and thus as the most likely effective pollinators. The two species are Glischrochilus quadrisignatus and Stelidota geminata. Both are in the taxonomic family Nitidulidae. Nitidulid beetles are described by Clemson University as likely "night flying" pollinators of pawpaw.[44] Larvae and adult beetle stages of Glischrochilus quadrisignatus were also documented by the citizen project on the ground-level side of rotting fruit in a pawpaw orchard in Michigan following the fruit harvest.[38]
Seed dispersal
Until the expansion of humans into North America at the end of the
The
Another indicator of dispersal adaptation for megafauna is that pawpaw fruit (wild types and most cultivars) tend to remain green or become blotched with brown when at peak ripeness. Mammals (other than
Following the
Interactions with herbivores
Pawpaw defends against
Larvae of the
Other insects which have evolved the ability to consume pawpaws include Talponia plummeriana, the pawpaw peduncle borer, whose larvae can be found in flowers, and Omphalocera munroei, the asimina webworm, whose larvae mostly feed upon leaves.[64]
Patch-forming clonal growth
Pawpaw is well suited to life as an understory tree. Its large seed enables significant below-ground growth before the above-ground growth needs to access sunlight for photosynthesis. As well, the species is so shade-adapted that propagation of seedlings in nursery and landscape settings may fail if the emerging plants are not protected from direct sunlight.[65]
Patch-forming clonal growth is achieved by way of shallow, horizontally spreading stems (
Pawpaws are not the first to colonize a disturbed site, but because they are capable of growing in deep shade, they can establish from seed beneath mature deciduous trees and then spread into a subcanopy patch. They may even become dominant through time by depriving native canopy trees from re-establishing via seed in a treefall gap, owing to the dense shade within a pawpaw patch. Under such circumstances, the pawpaw subcanopy becomes the forest canopy, albeit at a height half as high as the usual canopy of native trees.[58][67] Accessing full sunlight, the patch is then capable of producing more fruit.[38]
Shifting dynamics
Pawpaw is predominantly a lowland species associated with moist but well-drained soils. Recently it has been colonizing drier upland forests.[33]
Upslope expansion has been attributed to a lessening of human-set fires within forested habitats of the eastern United States. Unlike common canopy trees such as
Pawpaw exhibits a high tolerance for intense shading, even compared with other shade-adapted species such as striped maple.[69] Pawpaw leaves cast very heavy shade, and this chokes out seedlings and saplings of most canopy species (though not native spring herbs that benefit from the late-leafing habit of pawpaw).[70] This helps pawpaw outcompete rival species and is a contributor to its increased abundance in forests across its range.
Conservation
On a global (range-wide) scale, the common pawpaw (A. triloba) has a
In areas in which deer populations are dense, pawpaws appear to be becoming more abundant locally, since the deer avoid them but consume seedlings of most other woody plants.[61][73]
Disease
The genus Asimina exists on only one continent, North America.[74] This gives the pawpaw a distinct advantage in the modern world of transcontinental commerce. In contrast to North American tree genera whose ranges extend into Europe or Asia (notably, chestnut and elm), global horticultural trade is therefore unlikely to introduce diseases that could decimate pawpaw.
As for native disease, the pawpaw fares very well. There are no known disease agents (including insects) that are especially damaging. Consequently, planting of pawpaw for landscaping or fruit production requires little to no attention to disease management.[75]
Habitat restoration
Pawpaws are sometimes included in
In the eastern United States, where large predators are almost entirely lacking, pawpaw is one of the few native subcanopy trees whose bark and leaves are too poisonous for deer to browse. It is therefore a viable species for forest understory restoration in areas where fragmented landscapes, dwellings, and parks status preclude hunting as a population control.[77][78]
Human uses
Uses other than food
The tough, fibrous inner bark of the pawpaw has traditionally been used by Native Americans and settlers in the Midwest for making ropes, fishing nets, and mats,[13][61] and for stringing fish.[15] Because the exotic emerald ash borer beetle is destroying black ash trees (Fraxinus nigra) in its native range, a basketmaker in Michigan whose ancestors traditionally used this northern species of ash has begun planting pawpaw seeds as a potential fiber replacement.[79] The planting is occurring several hundred miles north of pawpaw's historically native range, so it is an example of assisted migration of a plant in a time of rapid climate change.
Pawpaw logs have been used for split-rail fences in Arkansas.[13] The hard, brown, shiny lima-bean-sized seeds were sometimes carried as pocket pieces in Ohio.[13] Due to the presence of acetogenins, the leaves, twigs, and bark of pawpaw trees can be used to make an organic insecticide.[59]
Edible fruit
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
---|---|
18.8 g | |
Dietary fiber | 2.6 g |
1.2 g | |
1.2 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 7% 1.1 mg |
Vitamin C | 20% 18.3 mg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 5% 63 mg |
Iron | 39% 7 mg |
Magnesium | 27% 113 mg |
Manganese | 113% 2.6 mg |
Phosphorus | 4% 47 mg |
Potassium | 12% 345 mg |
Zinc | 8% 0.9 mg |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[80] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[81] |
The earliest documented mention of pawpaws is in the 1541 report of the
Historically, the pawpaw was a commonly-eaten fruit throughout its native range. With the advent of motor travel and refrigeration, it has been used less commonly to the point of obscurity in favor of other commercial fruits.
As described by horticulturist Barbara Damrosch, the fruit of the pawpaw "looks a bit like mango, but with pale yellow, custardy, spoonable flesh and black, easy-to-remove seeds."[85] Wild-collected pawpaw fruits ripen in late August to mid-September through most of their range, but a month later near their northward limit.[86] They have long been a favorite treat throughout the tree's extensive native range in eastern North America, and on occasion are sold locally at farmers' markets.[3][86][85]
Pawpaw fruits have a sweet, custard-like flavor somewhat similar to banana, mango, and cantaloupe,[3][13] varying significantly by source or cultivar,[3] with more protein than most fruits.[3] Nineteenth-century American agronomist E. Lewis Sturtevant described pawpaws as "a natural custard, too luscious for the relish of most people."[61] Ohio botanist William B. Werthner wrote, "The fruit ... has a tangy wild-wood flavor peculiarly its own. It is sweet, yet rather cloying to the taste and a wee bit puckery – only a boy can eat more than one at a time."[13]
Fresh fruits of the pawpaw are commonly eaten raw, either chilled or at room temperature. However, they can be kept only 2–3 days at room temperature, or about a week if refrigerated.[24][87] This short shelf-life and difficulty shipping whole are a primary barrier to the success of pawpaw as a commercial fruit. The easily-bruised pawpaw fruits do not ship well unless frozen.[3][85] Where pawpaws grow, the fruit pulp is also used locally in baked dessert recipes, with pawpaw substituted with volumetric equivalency in many banana-based recipes. The sweet and creamy fruit is commonly mixed into ice cream[24] or blended into pancakes and other breads.[24]
Nutrition
According to a report from the KSU Pawpaw Program (right table), raw pawpaw (with skin) is 19%
Pawpaw fruit is very rich in many minerals and micronutrients compared to most other fruits; apples, oranges, bananas, etc.[75]
Phytochemicals
Pawpaw pulp contains
Cultivars
Over the years, a variety of cultivars of A. triloba have been developed or discovered,[93] although some have been lost and are no longer available commercially.[82][94][95] Most named cultivars derive from the northern parts of the species range.[65]
Kentucky State University (KSU) has a pawpaw research program[96] which seeks to develop methods and varieties to increase the viability of the pawpaw to be grown as a commercial fruit crop.
The named varieties producing large fruit and performing well in Kentucky per research trials are 'NC-1', 'Overleese', 'Potomac', 'Shenandoah', 'Sunflower', 'Susquehanna', 'Wabash', KSU-'Atwood', KSU-'Benson', and KSU-'Chappell'.[97]
Research
Kentucky State University (KSU) has the only full-time pawpaw research program in the world; it was started in 1990 with the aim of developing pawpaw as a new tree-fruit crop for Kentucky. Pawpaw is the largest edible native fruit in North America and has very few diseases compared to other orchard crops. KSU is the site of the USDA National Clonal Germplasm Repository for Asimina species and the pawpaw orchards at KSU contain over 1,700 trees. Research activities include germplasm collection and variety trials, and efforts are directed towards improving propagation, understanding fruit ripening and storage, and developing orchard management practices. Cultivation is best in hardiness zones 5-9 and trees take 7–8 years from seedling to fruiting. KSU has created the three cultivars KSU-'Atwood', KSU-'Benson', and KSU-'Chappell', with foci on better flavors, higher yields, vigorous plants, and low seed-to-pulp ratios.[9][98][97][95][99][100]
Cultivation
Cultivation is best in hardiness zones 5-9[9] and trees take 7–8 years from seedling to fruiting. Cross-pollination of at least two different genetic varieties of the plant is recommended.[3] Scholarly research is insufficient for horticulturalists to adopt best methods for attracting insect pollinators, as effective pollinators have not yet been distinguished from casual insect visitors.[40][42][43] Therefore, some growers resort to hand pollination or use pollinator attractants, such as spraying fish emulsion or hanging chicken necks or other meat near the open flowers to attract carrion-feeding beetles.[8][41]
Pawpaws have not been cultivated for their fruits on the scale of
Cultivation of pawpaws for fruit production has attracted interest, particularly among organic growers, as a fruit with few to no pests that can successfully be grown in its native environment without pesticides. The commercial cultivation and harvesting of pawpaws is strongest in southeastern Ohio[102] and also being explored in Kentucky[3] and Maryland,[61] as well as various areas outside the species' native range, including California,[60] the Pacific Northwest,[60] and Massachusetts.[85] The pawpaw is used for landscaping due to its distinctive growth habit, the appeal of its fresh fruit, and its relatively low maintenance needs once established.[24]
Changing perspectives of the general population towards a healthier and environmentally conscious diet has led to increased interest in the pawpaw as food in recent years. Using pawpaw puree as a substitute for other sweeteners and creamers adds micronutrients such as iron and manganese while typically reducing the total sugar content as well as glycemic index of most recipes. If done correctly this will not negatively impact the quality of baked goods or desserts. In a study conducted using pawpaw puree in muffins, the pawpaw muffins were preferred in the blind taste test over the control (sugar) and other sweeteners (apple puree).[103]
Commercial pawpaw production tends to be less intensive than other fruit trees.[104] Pawpaw requires very little pesticide/herbicide, even when planted as a monoculture. Because of its long taproot, pawpaw grows well even in drier upland plantings. Also attractive to fruit growers is its ability to be grown in more northern climates of the eastern United States and southern Canada than commercial fruit species grown primarily in the warmth of Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and California.[105]
Propagation
Trees are easily grown from seed. Seeds should not be permitted to dry, as they lose viability if they dehydrate to 5% moisture.
Given the 6 to 7 year maturity time and relatively poor success rates for dispersal and germination, it often requires 7 to 10 years for a sapling-to-sapling life cycle to occur for a given individual.[107]
Propagation using cuttings has generally not been successful.[106][98]
Desirable cultivars are propagated by chip budding or whip grafting onto a root stock. Pawpaw seeds do not grow "true to type" — each individual seed in a fruit is genetically different from the others and from its parent tree. Purchased cultivars do not produce seeds true to type, either, which is why cultivars are all grafted trees. Root sucker seedlings, however, are all genetically identical to their host.[98][97]
Commercial nurseries usually ship grafted cultivars in containers. Other nurseries, such as the Kentucky Division of Forestry, ship bareroot seedlings for reforestation projects and area homeowners.[108][97][109]
Harvesting small stems within a wild pawpaw patch is usually unsuccessful because most are clones of (and still connected to) adjacent stems and therefore lack fully developed roots.[98][97]
Cultural significance
Old song
A traditional American folk song portrays wild harvesting of pawpaws; Arty Schronce of the Georgia Department of Agriculture gives these lyrics:[24]
Where, oh where is dear little Nellie?
Where, oh where is dear little Nellie?
Where, oh where is dear little Nellie?
Way down yonder in the pawpaw patch
Pickin' up pawpaws, puttin' 'em in your pocket
Pickin' up pawpaws, puttin' 'em in your pocket
Pickin' up pawpaws, puttin' 'em in your pocket
Way down yonder in the pawpaw patch
He notes that "picking up pawpaws" refers to gathering the ripe, fallen fruit from beneath the trees, and that the "pocket" in the song is that of an apron or similar tie-on pocket, not a modern pants or blue-jeans pocket, into which pawpaws would hardly fit.[24] A "pawpaw patch" refers to the plant's characteristic patch-forming clonal growth habit.
Place names
The pawpaw is the basis for various place and school names in the United States, almost all using the older spelling variant "paw paw".
- The Paw Paw Tunnel on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal in Maryland is a 3118-foot (950-m) canal tunnel completed in 1850 to bypass about 5 miles of the 6-mile-long Paw Paw Bends of the Potomac River near the town of Paw Paw, West Virginia, all ultimately named after the pawpaw tree.[110]
- In Michigan, the Paw Paw River is named for the pawpaw trees that grew along its banks. Paw Paw Lake and Little Paw Paw Lake are both tributaries to the river. The town of Paw Paw, Michigan, is located at the junction of two branches of the Paw Paw River. The Paw Paw Railroad (1857–1887) operated a 4-mile (6.4-km) rail line between Lawton and Paw Paw, in Van Buren County, Michigan.[111]
- The village of Paw Paw, Illinois, was named after a nearby grove of pawpaw trees.[112]
- The community of Paw Paw, Indiana, in Miami County, and Paw Paw Township in DeKalb County and Paw Paw Township in Wabash County are all named after groves of native pawpaw trees.[113]
- Paw Paw, Kentucky, a community in easternmost Kentucky, was named after the native fruit tree.[114]
- The (now empty) town of Paw Paw, Missouri, was named after the trees.[115]
Art
- Nineteenth-century naturalist and painter John James Audubon included pawpaw foliage and fruits in the background of his illustration of the yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus) in his classic work, The Birds of America(1827–1838).
- Pawpaw fruits and a pawpaw leaf are featured in the painting Edward Edmondson, Jr. (1830–1884), at the Dayton Art Institute in Dayton, Ohio.
- The Paw Paw is mentioned in the song "Bear Necessities" from the movie "The Jungle Book" : "Now when you pick a paw-paw or a prickly pear And you prick a raw paw, well, next time beware Don't pick the prickly pear by the paw When you pick a pear try to use the claw But you don't need to use the claw When you pick a pear of the big paw-paw Have I given you a clue?" However, neither pawpaws nor prickly pears are found in India, where the film takes place.
Other
- The third Thursday in September has been designated as National Pawpaw Day by the
- The pawpaw was designated as Ohio's state native fruit in 2009.[119]
- Since 1999, the Ohio Pawpaw Growers' Association has sponsored an annual Ohio Pawpaw Festival at Lake Snowden, near Albany, Ohio.[120]
- Since 2012, Delaware's Alapocas Run State Park has hosted an annual Pawpaw Folk Festival featuring tastings of the fruit.[121]
- The larva of the Pawpaw sphinx moth feeds on pawpaw leaves.[122]
- Since 2019, the pawpaw has been the official state fruit tree of Missouri.[123]
- The endangered Missouri variety of French is known by outsiders and some native speakers as "Paw-Paw French."
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Further reading
- Moore, Andrew (2015). Pawpaw: In Search of America's Forgotten Fruit. ISBN 978-1603585972.