Mango

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This article is about the fruit. For other uses, see Mango (disambiguation).

Mango fruits – single and halved

A mango is an edible stone fruit produced by the tropical tree Mangifera indica. It originated from the region between northwestern Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern India.[1][2] M. indica has been cultivated in South and Southeast Asia since ancient times resulting in two types of modern mango cultivars: the "Indian type" and the "Southeast Asian type".[1][2] Other species in the genus Mangifera also produce edible fruits that are also called "mangoes", the majority of which are found in the Malesian ecoregion.[3]

Worldwide, there are several hundred

national fruit of India, Pakistan and the Philippines,[5][6] while the mango tree is the national tree of Bangladesh.[7]

Etymology

The English word mango (plural "mangoes" or "mangos") originated in the 16th century from the Portuguese word manga, from the Malay mangga, and ultimately from the Tamil man ("mango tree") + kay ("unripe fruit/vegetable").[8][9][10] The scientific name, Mangifera indica, refers to a plant bearing mangoes in India.[10]

Description

Mango trees grow to 30–40 metres (98–131 feet) tall, with a crown radius of 10–15 m (33–49 ft). The trees are long-lived, as some specimens still fruit after 300 years.[11]

In deep soil, the

leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple, 15–35 centimetres (6–14 inches) long, and 6–16 cm (2+1⁄2–6+1⁄2 in) broad; when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark, glossy red, then dark green as they mature.[4] The flowers are produced in terminal panicles 10–40 cm (4–15+1⁄2 in) long; each flower is small and white with five petals 5–10 millimetres (3⁄16–3⁄8 in) long, with a mild, sweet fragrance.[4] Over 500 varieties of mangoes are known,[4] many of which ripen in summer, while some give a double crop.[12] The fruit takes four to five months from flowering to ripening.[4]

The ripe fruit varies according to cultivar in size, shape, color, sweetness, and eating quality.

fibrous or hairy on the surface and does not separate easily from the pulp.[4] The fruits may be somewhat round, oval, or kidney-shaped, ranging from 5–25 centimetres (2–10 in) in length and from 140 grams (5 oz) to 2 kilograms (5 lb) in weight per individual fruit.[4] The skin is leather-like, waxy, smooth, and fragrant, with colors ranging from green to yellow, yellow-orange, yellow-red, or blushed with various shades of red, purple, pink, or yellow when fully ripe.[4]

Ripe intact mangoes give off a distinctive resinous, sweet smell.[4] Inside the pit 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 in) thick is a thin lining covering a single seed, 4–7 cm (1.6–2.8 in) long. Mangoes have recalcitrant seeds which do not survive freezing and drying.[13] Mango trees grow readily from seeds, with germination success highest when seeds are obtained from mature fruits.[4]

  • Flowers and immature fruits on an 'Alphonso' tree
    Flowers and immature fruits on an
    'Alphonso'
    tree
  • Unripe mangos in Rincón, Puerto Rico
    Unripe mangos in Rincón, Puerto Rico
  • The seed inside of a mango pit
    The seed inside of a mango pit
  • A mango stone
    A mango stone

Taxonomy

polyembryonic
mango cultivar
monoembryonic
mango cultivar

Mangoes originated from the region between northwestern Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern India.[1][2] The mango is considered an evolutionary anachronism, whereby seed dispersal was once accomplished by a now-extinct evolutionary forager, such as a megafauna mammal.[14]

From their center of origin, mangoes diverged into two genetically distinct populations: the subtropical Indian group and the tropical Southeast Asian group. The Indian group is characterized by having

polyembryonic fruits characterize the Southeast Asian group.[1][2]

It was previously believed that mangoes originated from a single

interspecific hybridization with other Mangifera species native to the Malesian ecoregion). Nevertheless, the existence of two distinct genetic populations also identified by the study indicates that the domestication of the mango is more complex than previously assumed and would at least indicate multiple domestication events in Southeast Asia and South Asia.[1][2]

Cultivars

Main article: List of mango cultivars

There are many hundreds of named mango cultivars. In mango

'Alphonso', an important export product, considered "the king of mangoes."[15]

Cultivars that excel in one climate may fail elsewhere. For example, Indian cultivars such as 'Julie,' a prolific cultivar in Jamaica, require annual

anthracnose in Florida. Asian mangoes are resistant to anthracnose.[16]

The current world market is dominated by the cultivar 'Tommy Atkins', a seedling of 'Haden' that first fruited in 1940 in southern Florida and was initially rejected commercially by Florida researchers.[17] Growers and importers worldwide have embraced the cultivar for its excellent productivity and disease resistance, shelf life, transportability, size, and appealing color.[18] Although the Tommy Atkins cultivar is commercially successful, other cultivars may be preferred by consumers for eating pleasure, such as Alphonso.[15][18]

Generally, ripe mangoes have an orange-yellow or reddish peel and are juicy for eating, while exported fruit are often picked while underripe with green peels. Although producing

ethylene
while ripening, unripened exported mangoes do not have the same juiciness or flavor as fresh fruit.

Distribution and habitat

Mango tree in Palestine

From tropical Asia, mangoes were introduced to East Africa by

Colonial Era. The Portuguese Empire spread the mango from their colony in Goa to East and West Africa. From West Africa, they introduced it to Brazil from the 16th to the 17th centuries. From Brazil, it spread northwards to the Caribbean and eastern Mexico by the mid to late 18th century. The Spanish Empire also introduced mangoes directly from the Philippines to western Mexico via the Manila galleons from at least the 16th century. Mangoes were only introduced to Florida by 1833.[2][21]

Cultivation

The mango is now cultivated in most frost-free tropical and warmer subtropical climates. It is cultivated extensively in South Asia, Southeast Asia, East and West Africa, the tropical and subtropical Americas, and the Caribbean.[22] Mangoes are also grown in Andalusia, Spain (mainly in Málaga province), as its coastal subtropical climate is one of the few places in mainland Europe that permits the growth of tropical plants and fruit trees. The Canary Islands are another notable Spanish producer of the fruit. Other minor cultivators include North America (in South Florida and the California Coachella Valley), Hawai'i, and Australia.[23]

Many commercial cultivars are grafted onto the cold-hardy rootstock of the Gomera-1 mango cultivar, originally from Cuba. Its root system is well adapted to a coastal Mediterranean climate.[24] Many of the 1,000+ mango cultivars are easily cultivated using grafted saplings, ranging from the "turpentine mango" (named for its strong taste of turpentine[25]) to the Bullock's Heart. Dwarf or semidwarf varieties serve as ornamental plants and can be grown in containers. A wide variety of diseases can afflict mangoes.[citation needed]

Mango* production – 2022
Country (Millions of tonnes)
 India 26.3
 Indonesia 4.1
 China 3.8
 Pakistan 2.8
 Mexico 2.5
 Brazil 2.1
World 59.2
* includes mangosteens and guavas reported to FAOSTAT
Source:
FAOSTAT of the United Nations[26]

A breakthrough in mango cultivation was the use of

horticulturist Ramon Barba in 1974 and was developed from the unique traditional method of inducing mango flowering using smoke in the Philippines. It allowed mango plantations to induce regular flowering and fruiting year-round. Previously, mangoes were seasonal because they only flowered every 16 to 18 months. The method is now used in most mango-producing countries.[27][28]

Production

In 2022, world production of mangoes (report includes mangosteens and guavas) was 59 million tonnes, led by India with 44% of the total (table).[26]

Uses

Culinary

Mangoes are generally sweet, although the taste and texture of the flesh vary across cultivars; some, such as

Alphonso, have a soft, pulpy, juicy texture similar to an overripe plum, while others, such as Tommy Atkins, are firmer with a fibrous texture.[29]

The skin of unripe,

gingiva, or tongue in susceptible people.[30]

Mangoes are used in many cuisines. Sour, unripe mangoes are used in

groundnut oil
. Mango is also used to make dahl and chunda (a sweet and spicy, grated mango delicacy).

Mangoes are used to make

desiccated, folded and then cut. The fruit is also added to cereal products such as muesli and oat granola
.

Mango is used to make

chamoy, a sweet and spicy chili paste. In Central America, mango is either eaten green, mixed with salt, vinegar, black pepper
, and hot sauce, or ripe in various forms.

Pieces of mango can be mashed and used as a topping on ice cream or blended with milk and ice as milkshakes. Sweet glutinous rice is flavored with coconut, then served with sliced mango as mango sticky rice. In other parts of Southeast Asia, mangoes are pickled with fish sauce and rice vinegar. Green mangoes can be used in mango salad with fish sauce and dried shrimp. Mango with condensed milk may be used as a topping for shaved ice.

Raw green mangoes can be sliced and eaten like a salad.[31] In most parts of Southeast Asia, they are commonly eaten with fish sauce, vinegar, soy sauce, or with a dash of salt (plain or spicy) – a combination usually known as "mango salad" in English.[32]

Major flavor chemicals of 'Alphonso' mango from India

In the Philippines, green mangoes are also commonly eaten with bagoong (salty fish or shrimp paste), salt, soy sauce, vinegar or chilis.[33][34] Mango float and mango cake, which use slices of ripe mangoes, are eaten in the Philippines.[35][36] Dried strips of sweet, ripe mango (sometimes combined with seedless tamarind to form mangorind) are also consumed. Mangoes may be used to make juices, mango nectar, and as a flavoring and major ingredient in mango ice cream and sorbetes.

Phytochemistry

Mango
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy250 kJ (60 kcal)
15 g
Sugars13.7
Dietary fiber1.6 g
0.38 g
Saturated0.092 g
Monounsaturated0.14 g
Polyunsaturated0.071 g
0.051 g
0.019 g
0.82 g
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.669 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
4%
0.197 mg
Vitamin B6
7%
0.119 mg
Folate (B9)
11%
43 μg
Choline
1%
7.6 mg
Vitamin C
40%
36.4 mg
Vitamin E
6%
0.9 mg
Vitamin K
4%
4.2 μg
Copper
12%
0.111 mg
Iron
1%
0.16 mg
Magnesium
2%
10 mg
Manganese
3%
0.063 mg
Phosphorus
1%
14 mg
Potassium
6%
168 mg
Selenium
1%
0.6 μg
Sodium
0%
1 mg
Zinc
1%
0.09 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water83.5 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[37] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[38]

Numerous

polyphenols, such as quercetin, kaempferol, gallic acid, caffeic acid, catechins and tannins.[42][43] Mango contains a unique xanthonoid called mangiferin.[44]

Phytochemical and nutrient content appears to vary across mango

pigmentation of most mango cultivars.[46] Mango leaves also have significant polyphenol content, including xanthonoids, mangiferin and gallic acid.[47]

Flavor

The

'Alphonso' is one of the most popular cultivars. In 'Alphonso' mango, the lactones and furanones are synthesized during ripening, whereas terpenes and the other flavorants are present in both the developing (immature) and ripening fruits.[52][53][54] Ethylene, a ripening-related hormone well known to be involved in ripening of mango fruits, causes changes in the flavor composition of mango fruits upon exogenous application, as well.[55][56] In contrast to the huge amount of information available on the chemical composition of mango flavor, the biosynthesis of these chemicals has not been studied in depth; only a handful of genes encoding the enzymes of flavor biosynthetic pathways have been characterized to date.[57][58][59][60]

Toxicity

Contact with oils in mango leaves, stems, sap, and skin can cause

poison sumac) may be most at risk for mango contact dermatitis.[62] Other mango compounds potentially responsible for dermatitis or allergic reactions include mangiferin.[4] Cross-reactions may occur between mango allergens and urushiol.[63] Sensitized individuals may not be able to eat peeled mangos or drink mango juice safely.[4]

When mango trees are flowering in spring, local people with allergies may experience breathing difficulty, itching of the eyes, or facial swelling, even before flower pollen becomes airborne.[4] In this case, the irritant is likely to be the vaporized essential oil from flowers.[4] During the primary ripening season of mangoes, contact with mango plant parts – primarily sap, leaves, and fruit skin[4] – is the most common cause of plant dermatitis in Hawaii.[64]

Nutrition

A raw mango is 84% water, 15%

Daily Value
as 44% and 11%, respectively (table).

Culture

An image of Ambika under a mango tree in Cave 34 of the Ellora Caves

The mango is the national fruit of India.[65][66] It is also the national tree of Bangladesh.[67][68] In India, harvest and sale of mangoes is during March–May and this is annually covered by news agencies.[15]

The mango has a traditional context in the culture of South Asia. In his edicts, the Mauryan emperor Ashoka references the planting of fruit- and shade-bearing trees along imperial roads:

"On the roads banyan-trees were caused to be planted by me, (in order that) they might afford shade to cattle and men, (and) mango-groves were caused to be planted."

In medieval India, the Indo-Persian poet

Totapuri, which was the first variety to be exported to Iran and Central Asia.[citation needed] Akbar (1556–1605) is said to have planted a mango orchard of 100,000 trees near Darbhanga, Bihar,[69] while Jahangir and Shah Jahan ordered the planting of mango orchards in Lahore and Delhi and the creation of mango-based desserts.[70]

The

Kālidāsa sang the praises of mangoes.[73]

Mangoes were the subject of the mango cult in China during the Cultural Revolution as symbols of chairman Mao Zedong's love for the people.[74]

See also

  • Achaar
    , South Asian pickles, commonly containing mango and lime
  • Amchoor, mango powder
  • Mangifera caesia, a related species also widely cultivated for its fruit in Southeast Asia
  • Mango mealybug
  • Mango pickle – Mangai-oorkai (manga-achar), South Indian hot mango pickle

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Further reading

External links

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