Pineapple
Pineapple | |
---|---|
A pineapple on its parent plant | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Monocots |
Clade: | Commelinids |
Order: | Poales |
Family: | Bromeliaceae |
Genus: | Ananas |
Species: | A. comosus
|
Binomial name | |
Ananas comosus (
Merr. | |
Synonyms[1] | |
List
|
The pineapple[2][3] (Ananas comosus) is a tropical plant with an edible fruit; it is the most economically significant plant in the family Bromeliaceae.[4]
The pineapple is indigenous to South America, where it has been cultivated for many centuries. The introduction of the pineapple plant to Europe in the 17th century made it a significant cultural icon of luxury. Since the 1820s, pineapple has been commercially grown in greenhouses and many tropical plantations.
Pineapples grow as a small shrub; the individual flowers of the unpollinated plant fuse to form a multiple fruit. The plant normally propagates from the offset produced at the top of the fruit[2][5] or from a side shoot, and typically matures within a year.[5][6]
Description
The pineapple is a herbaceous perennial, which grows to 1.0 to 1.5 m (3 ft 3 in to 4 ft 11 in) tall on average, although sometimes it can be taller. The plant has a short, stocky stem with tough, waxy leaves. When creating its fruit, it usually produces up to 200 flowers, although some large-fruited cultivars can exceed this. Once it flowers, the individual fruits of the flowers join together to create a multiple fruit. After the first fruit is produced, side shoots (called 'suckers' by commercial growers) are produced in the leaf axils of the main stem. These suckers may be removed for propagation, or left to produce additional fruits on the original plant.[5] Commercially, suckers that appear around the base are cultivated. It has 30 or more narrow, fleshy, trough-shaped leaves that are 30 to 100 cm (1 to 3+1⁄2 ft) long, surrounding a thick stem; the leaves have sharp spines along the margins. In the first year of growth, the axis lengthens and thickens, bearing numerous leaves in close spirals. After 12 to 20 months, the stem grows into a spike-like inflorescence up to 15 cm (6 in) long with over 100 spirally arranged, trimerous flowers, each subtended by a bract.
In the wild, pineapples are pollinated primarily by
The ovaries develop into
The pineapple carries out
Taxonomy
The pineapple comprises five botanical varieties, formerly regarded as separate species.[13] The genomes of three varieties, including the wild progenitor variety bracteatus, have been sequenced.[14]
History
Etymology
The first reference in English to the pineapple fruit was the 1568 translation from the French of André Thevet's The New Found World, or Antarctike where he refers to a Hoyriri, a fruit cultivated and eaten by the Tupinambá people, living near modern Rio de Janeiro, and now believed to be a pineapple.[15] Later in the same English translation, he describes the same fruit as a "Nana made in the manner of a Pine apple", where he used another Tupi word nanas, meaning 'excellent fruit'.[16] This usage was adopted by many European languages and led to the plant's scientific binomial Ananas comosus, where comosus 'tufted' refers to the stem of the plant. Purchas, writing in English in 1613, referred to the fruit as Ananas, but the Oxford English Dictionary's first record of the word pineapple itself by an English writer is by Mandeville in 1714.[17]
Precolonial cultivation
The wild plant originates from the Paraná–Paraguay River drainages between southern Brazil and Paraguay.[2][18][19][20] Little is known about its domestication, but it spread as a crop throughout South America. Archaeological evidence of use is found as far back as 1200–800 BC (3200–2800 BP) in Peru[21] and 200 BC – 700 AD (2200–1300 BP) in Mexico,[22] where it was cultivated by the Mayas and the Aztecs.[23] By the late 1400s, cropped pineapple was widely distributed and a staple food of Native Americans. The first European to encounter the pineapple was Columbus, in Guadeloupe on 4 November 1493.[24][25] The Portuguese took the fruit from Brazil and introduced it into India by 1550.[26] The 'Red Spanish ' cultivar was also introduced by the Spanish from Latin America to the Philippines, and it was grown for textile use from at least the 17th century.[27]
Columbus brought the plant back to Spain and called it piña de Indes, meaning "pine of the Indians". The pineapple was documented in Peter Martyr's Decades of the New World (1516) and Antonio Pigafetta's Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo (1524–1525), and the first known illustration was in Oviedo's Historia General de Las Indias (1535).[28]
Old World introduction
While the pineapple fascinated Europeans as a fruit of colonialism,
Because of the expense of direct import and the enormous cost in equipment and labour required to grow them in a temperate climate, in greenhouses called "pineries", pineapple became a symbol of wealth. They were initially used mainly for display at dinner parties, rather than being eaten, and were used again and again until they began to rot.[36] In the second half of the 18th century, the production of the fruit on British estates became the subject of great rivalry between wealthy aristocrats.[36] John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, built a hothouse on his estate surmounted by a huge stone cupola 14 metres tall in the shape of the fruit; it is known as the Dunmore Pineapple.[37] In architecture, pineapple figures became decorative elements symbolizing hospitality.[38][39][40]
Since the 19th century: mass commercialization
Many different varieties, mostly from the Antilles, were tried for European glasshouse cultivation. The most significant was "Smooth Cayenne", imported to France in 1820, subsequently re-exported to the United Kingdom in 1835, and then from the UK via Hawaii to Australia and Africa. "Smooth Cayenne" is now the dominant cultivar in world production.[25] Jams and sweets based on pineapple were imported to Europe from the West Indies, Brazil, and Mexico from an early date. By the early 19th century, fresh pineapples were transported direct from the West Indies in large enough quantities to reduce European prices.[25] Later pineapple production was dominated by the Azores for Europe, and Florida and the Caribbean for North America, because of the short trade routes.
The Spanish had introduced the pineapple into Hawaii in the 18th century
Hawaiian production started to decline from the 1970s because of competition and the shift to refrigerated sea transport. Dole ceased its cannery operations in
In the Philippines, "Smooth Cayenne" was introduced in the early 1900s by the US Bureau of Agriculture during the American colonial period. Dole and Del Monte established plantations in the island of Mindanao in the 1920s; in the provinces of Cotabato and Bukidnon, respectively.[27][51] Large scale canning had started in Southeast Asia, including in the Philippines, from 1920. This trade was severely damaged by World War II, and Hawaii dominated the international trade until the 1960s.
The Philippines remain one of the top exporters of pineapples in the world. The Del Monte plantations are now locally managed, after Del Monte Pacific Ltd., a Filipino company, completed the purchase of Del Monte Foods in 2014.[52]
Composition
Nutrition
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
---|---|
Energy | 209 kJ (50 kcal) |
13.12 g | |
Sugars | 9.85 g |
Dietary fiber | 1.4 g |
0.12 g | |
0.54 g | |
Niacin (B3) | 3% 0.5 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 4% 0.213 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 7% 0.112 mg |
Folate (B9) | 5% 18 μg |
Choline | 1% 5.5 mg |
Vitamin C | 53% 47.8 mg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 1% 13 mg |
Iron | 2% 0.29 mg |
Magnesium | 3% 12 mg |
Manganese | 40% 0.927 mg |
Phosphorus | 1% 8 mg |
Potassium | 4% 109 mg |
Sodium | 0% 1 mg |
Zinc | 1% 0.12 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 86.00 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[53] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[54] |
Raw pineapple pulp is 86% water, 13% carbohydrates, 0.5% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, raw pineapple supplies 209 kilojoules (50 kilocalories) of food energy, and is a rich source of manganese (44% Daily Value, DV) and vitamin C (58% DV), but otherwise contains no micronutrients in significant amounts.
Phytochemistry
Pineapple fruits and peels contain diverse
Present in all parts of the pineapple plant,
Having sufficient bromelain content, raw pineapple juice may be useful as a meat
Varieties
Cultivars
Many cultivars are known.[2] The leaves of the commonly grown "smooth cayenne" are smooth,[63] and it is the most commonly grown worldwide. Many cultivars have become distributed from its origins in Paraguay and the southern part of Brazil, and later improved stocks were introduced into the Americas, the Azores, Africa, India, Malaysia and Australia.[2] Varieties include:[citation needed]
- "Hilo" is a compact, 1.0- to 1.5-kg (2– to 3-lb) Hawaiian variant of smooth cayenne; the fruit is more cylindrical and produces many suckers, but no slips.
- "Kona sugarloaf", at 2.5 to 3.0 kg (5–6 lb), has white flesh with no woodiness in the center, is cylindrical in shape, and has a high sugar content but no acid; it has an unusually sweet fruit.
- "Natal queen", at 1.0 to 1.5 kg (2 to 3 lb), has golden yellow flesh, crisp texture, and delicate mild flavor; well-adapted to fresh consumption, it keeps well after ripening. It has spiny leaves, and is grown in Australia, Malaysia, and South Africa.
- "Pernambuco" ("eleuthera") weighs 1–2 kg (2–4 lb), and has pale yellow to white flesh. It is sweet, melting in texture, and excellent for eating fresh; it is poorly adapted for shipping, has spiny leaves, and is grown in Latin America.
- "Red Spanish", at 1–2 kg (2–4 lb), has pale yellow flesh with a pleasant aroma, is squarish in shape, and well-adapted for shipping as fresh fruit to distant markets; it has spiny leaves and is grown in Latin America and the Philippines. It was the original pineapple cultivar in the Philippines grown for their leaf fibers (piña) in the traditional Philippine textile industry.[27][51]
- "Smooth cayenne", a 2.5- to 3.0-kg (5- to 6-lb), pale yellow– to yellow-fleshed, cylindrical fruit with high sugar and acid content, is well-adapted to canning and processing; its leaves are without spines. It is an ancient cultivar developed by Amerind peoples.[64] In some parts of Asia, this cultivar is known as Sarawak, after an area of Malaysia in which it is grown.[65] It is one of the ancestors of cultivars "73-50" (also called "MD-1" and "CO-2") and "73–114" (also called "MD-2").[64] Smooth cayenne was previously the variety produced in Hawaii, and the most easily obtainable in U.S. grocery stores, but was replaced over the course of the mid-1990s and 2000s by MD-2.[64]
- Some Ananas species are grown as aestheticqualities.
In the US, in 1986, the Pineapple Research Institute was dissolved and its assets divided between Del Monte and
-
Growing pineapples in a greenhouse
-
Red pineapple(Ananas bracteatus)
-
Tropical Gold
-
Victoria
Country | Millions of tonnes |
---|---|
Indonesia | 3.2 |
Philippines | 2.9 |
Costa Rica | 2.9 |
Brazil | 2.3 |
China | 2.0 |
Thailand | 1.7 |
World | 29.4 |
Production
In 2022, world production of pineapples was 29 million tonnes, led by Indonesia, the Philippines, and Costa Rica, each producing about 3 million tonnes.[67]
Uses
Culinary
The flesh and juice of the pineapple are used in cuisines around the world. In many tropical countries, pineapple is prepared and sold on roadsides as a snack. It is sold whole or in halves with a stick inserted. Whole, cored slices with a cherry in the middle are a common garnish on hams in the West. Chunks of pineapple are used in desserts such as fruit salad, as well as in some savory dishes, including the Hawaiian pizza, or as a grilled ring on a hamburger. Traditional dishes that use pineapple include hamonado, afritada, kaeng som pla, and Hawaiian haystack. Crushed pineapple is used in yogurt, jam, sweets, and ice cream. The juice of the pineapple is served as a beverage, and it is also the main ingredient in cocktails such as the piña colada and in the drink tepache.
In the Philippines, a traditional jelly-like dessert called nata de piña has also been produced since the 18th century. It is made by fermenting pineapple juice with the bacteria Komagataeibacter xylinus.[68]
Pineapple vinegar is an ingredient found in both
The European Union consumed 50% of the global total for pineapple juice in 2012–2016. The Netherlands was the largest importer of pineapple juice in Europe. Thailand, Costa Rica and the Netherlands are the major suppliers to the European Union market in 2012–2016.[72] Countries consuming the most pineapple juice in 2017 were Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines, having combined consumption of 47% of the world total. The consumption of pineapple juice in China and India is low compared to their populations.[73]
Textiles
The 'Red Spanish' cultivar of pineapples were once extensively cultivated in the
-
1895 painting of a Filipina in traditionaltraje de mestizadress
-
Calado embroidery on a barong tagalog
-
19th century handkerchief in the Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum
-
Frock coat, 1840–1849, Philippines, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Houseplant
The variety A. comosus 'Variegatus' is occasionally grown as a houseplant. It needs direct sunlight, and thrives at temperatures of 18 to 24 °C (64 to 75 °F) with a minimum winter temperature of 16 °C (61 °F). It should be kept humid, but the soil should be allowed to dry out between waterings. It has almost no resting period but should be repotted each spring until the container reaches 20 centimeters (8 in).[75]
Cultivation
In commercial farming, flowering can be induced artificially, and the early harvesting of the main fruit can encourage the development of a second crop of smaller fruits. Once removed during cleaning, the top of the pineapple can be planted in soil and a new plant will grow. Slips and suckers are planted commercially.[2]
Storage and transport
Some buyers prefer green fruit, others ripened or off-green. A plant growth regulator,
Ethical and environmental concerns
Like most
Historically, tropical fruit agriculture, such as for pineapples, has been concentrated in so-called "
Illegal drug trade
Export pineapples from Costa Rica to Europe are often used as a cover for narcotrafficking, and containers are impounded routinely in both locations.[80]
Expansion into protected areas
In Costa Rica, pineapple cultivation has expanded into the Maquenque, Corredor Fronterizo, Barra del Colorado and Caño Negro wildlife refuges, all located in the north of the country. As those are protected areas and not national parks, limited and restricted sustainable activities are allowed, however pineapple plantations are industrial operations and many of these do not have the proper license to operate in the protected areas, or were started before either the designation of the area, recent regulations or the creation of the environmental regulatory agency (Setena) in 1996. The agency has registers for around 358.5 ha (1.384 sq mi) of pineapple plantations operating within protected areas, but satellite imagery from 2018 reports around 1,659 ha (6.41 sq mi).[81]
Pests and diseases
Pineapples are subject to a variety of diseases, the most serious of which is wilt disease vectored by
Some pests that commonly affect pineapple plants are scales,
Heart-rot is the most serious disease affecting pineapple plants. The disease is caused by
See also
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- Menzel, Christopher. "Tropical and Subtropical Fruit". Encyclopedia of Agricultural Science Volume 4. ISBN 0122266706. Charles J Arntzen. New York: Elsevier Science Publishing Co. Inc., Academic Press, 2012. 380–382.
External links
- Pineapple Fruit Facts Archived 16 May 2005 at the California Rare Fruit Growers
- "The Strange History of the 'King-Pine'" from The Paris Review