Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd
UNESCO World Heritage Site | |
---|---|
Location | Gwynedd, Wales, United Kingdom |
Criteria | Cultural: i, iii, iv |
Reference | 374 |
Inscription | 1986 (10th Session) |
Location of castles and town walls in Wales Beaumaris Castle Caernarfon Castle & Caernarfon town walls Conwy Castle & Conwy town walls Harlech Castle |
The Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd is a
The fortifications form part of the
The fortifications played an important part in the conflicts in North Wales over the coming centuries. They were involved in the
For much of the 20th century, the castles and walls were considered primarily from a military perspective. Their use of concentric defences, barbicans, and substantial gatehouses led D. J. Cathcart King to describe them as the "zenith of English castle-building", and Sidney Toy to assess them as "some of the most powerful castles of any age or country".[2] In the late 20th and 21st centuries, historians such as Michael Prestwich and Abigail Wheatley also highlighted the sites' roles as palaces and symbols of royal power. The location of castles such as Caernarfon and Conwy were chosen for their political significance as well as military functions, being built on top of sites belonging to the Welsh princes. The castles incorporated luxury apartments and gardens, with the intention of supporting large royal courts in splendour. Caernarfon's castle and town walls incorporated expensive stonework, probably intended to evoke images of Arthurian or Roman imperial power in order to bolster Edward's personal prestige. The precise role of the royal architect James of Saint George in the construction projects, and the influence of his native County of Savoy on the designs, also continues to be debated by academics. However, the primary sources do indicate he played a key role, describing him as "Magistro Jacobo de sancto Georgio, Magistro operacionum Regis in Wallia" or "Master James of Saint George, Master of the King’s Works in Wales."[3]
History
13th–14th centuries
Background
The Edwardian castles and town walls in Gwynedd were built as a consequence of the wars fought for the control of Wales in the late 13th century. The kings of England and the Welsh princes had vied for control of the region since the 1070s, with Norman and English nobles and settlers slowly expanding their territories over several centuries.[4] In the 1260s, however, the Welsh leader Llywelyn ap Gruffudd exploited a civil war between Henry III and rebel barons in England to become the dominant power, and was formally recognised as the prince of Wales under the Treaty of Montgomery.[5]
Edward I became the king of England in 1272. Edward had extensive experience of warfare and sieges, having fought in Wales in 1257, led the six-month siege of Kenilworth Castle in 1266 and joined the crusade to North Africa in 1270.[6] He had seen numerous European fortifications, including the planned walled town and castle design at Aigues-Mortes.[7] On assuming the throne, one of Edward's first actions was to renovate and extend the royal fortress of the Tower of London.[7] Edward was also responsible for building a sequence of planned, usually walled, towns called bastides across Gascony as part of his attempt to strengthen his authority in the region.[8] Edward also authorised new planned towns to be built across England.[8]
Meanwhile, relations between Edward and Llywelyn rapidly collapsed, leading to Edward invading North Wales in 1276 in an attempt to break Llywelyn's hold on power.[5] During the war Edward built several major castles in order to better control the region and act as bases for campaigning.[7] Edward was successful, and the Treaty of Aberconwy in 1277 reaffirmed English dominance, dividing up most of Llwelyn's lands amongst his brothers and Edward.[9]
War of 1282–83
Edward and his allies amongst the Welsh princes soon began to quarrel, and in early 1282 rebellion broke out, led by Llywelyn's brother,
Rather than repeating the devolved arrangements of previous treaties, Edward chose to permanently colonise North Wales instead. The remaining royal family of Llywelyn and Dafydd was crushed and their lands divided amongst major English nobles.
As part of this scheme, in 1283 Edward ordered the construction of new castles and walled towns across the occupied territories, in part to encourage substantial migration to the region from England.
The new towns were important administrative centres for the new English governmental structures: Caernarfon and Harlech were the centres of new shires, and Conwy responsible for a new county. The castles were key military centres, but were also designed to function as royal palaces, capable of supporting the king and queen's households in secure comfort. Several of the projects also carried special symbolic importance.[14] Conwy was deliberately sited on the top of Aberconwy Abbey, the traditional burial place of the Welsh princes; the abbey was relocated eight miles inland.[15] The native Welsh rulers had prized the former Roman site at Caernarfon for its imperial symbolism, and parts of the fortifications of the Welsh princes were seized and symbolically reused to build Edward's new castle there.[16] The site of Harlech Castle was associated with the legend of Branwen, a Welsh princess.[17]
Edward employed trusted architects and engineers to run the projects, most prominently the Savoyard Master
The walled towns were planned out in a regular fashion, drawing both on the experience of equivalent
Rebellion of 1294–95
Edwards's fortifications were tested in 1294 when
In the aftermath of the rebellion, Edward ordered work to recommence on repairing and completing Caernarfon. Once Anglesey was reoccupied he also began to progress the delayed plans to fortify the area.[28] The chosen site was called Beaumaris and was about 1 mile (1.6 km) from the Welsh town of Llanfaes. The decision was therefore taken to move the Welsh population some 12 miles (19 km) south-west, where a settlement by the name of Newborough was created for them.[28] The deportation of the local Welsh opened the way for the construction of an English town, protected by a substantial castle.[29] A furious programme of building work commenced on the site under the direction of James of St George, the workforce sheltering in temporary huts in the centre of the half-built fortification. The project was very expensive, frequently falling into arrears, and by 1300 had cost around £11,000.[30] Despite the absence of town walls, the surrounding settlement grew quickly and by 1305 it had 132 and a quarter burgages paying rent to the Crown.[23]
By 1300 only Harlech and Conwy had been properly completed: Caernarfon's town walls were finished, but much of the castle was still incomplete and at Beaumaris Castle the inner walls was only half their intended height, with gaps in the outer walls.[31] By 1304 the total building programme in Wales had come to at least £80,000, almost six times Edward's annual income.[32] Edward had meanwhile become embroiled in a long-running sequence of wars in Scotland which began to consume his attention and financial resources, and as a result further work on the Welsh castles slowed to a crawl.[33] In 1306 Edward became concerned about a possible Scottish invasion of North Wales, spurring fresh construction work, but money remained much more limited than before.[34] By 1330 all new work had finally ceased, and Caernarfon and Beaumaris were never fully completed.[35]
Decline
Maintaining the castles proved challenging, and they rapidly fell into disrepair. The money given to the castle constables to enable them to maintain and garrison the castles had not been generous to start with, but the sums provided declined considerably during the 14th century.[36] The constable of Conwy Castle had been provided with £190 a year in 1284, but this fell away to £40 a year by the 1390s; Harlech's funding fell similarly from £100 a year to only £20 by 1391.[36] By 1321 a survey reported that Conwy was poorly equipped, with limited stores and suffering from leaking roofs and rotten timbers, and in the 1330s, Edward III was advised that none of the castles were in fit state to host the royal court should he visit the region.[37] A 1343 survey showed that Beaumaris needed extensive work, with several of the towers in a ruinous conditions.[38]
Repairs and renovations were sometimes carried out. When
At the end of the 14th century, Conwy Castle was involved in the downfall of Richard II. Richard returned from Ireland in August 1399 and took shelter in the castle from the forces of his rival, Henry Bolingbroke.[40] Henry Percy, Bolingbroke's emissary, went into the castle to conduct negotiations with the king.[41] Henry Percy took an oath in the castle chapel to protect the king if he agreed to leave the castle, but when Richard left he was promptly taken prisoner, and was taken away to die later in captivity at Pontefract Castle.[41]
15th–17th centuries
Glyndŵr Rising and Wars of the Roses
Tensions between the Welsh and the English persisted and spilled over in 1400 with the outbreak of the
Later in the century, a series of civil wars known as the
The ascension of the
English Civil War and aftermath
The
In the aftermath of the war, Parliament ordered the
In 1660 Charles II was
18th–21st centuries
Picturesque attractions
The sites began to pass into varied private ownership.
Transport infrastructure to the region began to improve throughout the 19th century, adding to the flow of visitors to the sites, including the future Queen Victoria in 1832.[72] Academic research into the sites, particularly Caernarfon and Conwy, began to occur in the middle of the 19th century.[73] Local and central government interest began to increase. In 1865 Conwy Castle passed to the civic leadership of Conwy town who began restoration work on the ruins, including the reconstruction of the slighted Bakehouse tower.[68] From the 1870s onwards, the government funded repairs to Caernarfon Castle. The deputy-constable, Llewellyn Turner, oversaw the work, controversially restoring and rebuilding the castle, rather than simply conserving the existing stonework.[74] Despite the protests of local residents, the moat to the north of the castle was cleared of post-medieval buildings that were considered to spoil the view.[75]
State restoration
In the early 20th century the central British state began to reacquire control of the sites. Caernarfon had never left the direct control of the Crown, but Harlech was transferred to the control of the Office of Works in 1914, Beaumaris followed in 1925 and Conwy was finally leased to the Ministry of Works in 1953.[76] The state invested heavily in conservation of the sites. The 1920s saw large-scale conservation programmes at both Beaumaris and Harlech, stripping back the vegetation, digging out the moat and repairing the stonework, but otherwise leaving the sites intact and avoiding outright restoration.[77] Major work was undertaken at Conwy in the 1950s and 1960s, including the clearing away of newer buildings encroaching on the 13th-century walls.[78]
Academic research increased at the turn of the 20th century, and as the Ministry of Works took control of the sites, government spending on these investigations began.[79] Historians such as Sidney Toy and Charles Peers published work on the sites, and research continued under Arnold Taylor, who joined the Office of Works as an assistant inspector in 1935.[73] Major academic reports were published in the 1950s, adding to the sites' reputation.[80] Taylor was also instrumental in the successful opposition to road projects proposed in the 1970s which would have had a substantial impact on the appearance of the Conwy site.[81] In the late 20th century, detailed reconstructions of the castles were painted by historical artists including Terry Ball, John Banbury and Ivan Lapper.[82]
In 1984 Cadw was formed as the historic environment service of the Welsh Government and took over the management of the four sites, operating them as tourist attractions.[83] In 2007, over 530,000 visits were made to the sites.[84] In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the castles and town walls played a more prominent part in debates surrounding Welsh identity.[85] The use of Caernarfon in the investiture of the Prince of Wales in 1911 and 1969, for example, was challenged by Welsh nationalists such as Alun Ffred Jones.[85] Cadw expanded the interpretation provided at the sites to give more emphasis to the impact of the creation of the castles on the native Welsh, and the role of the Welsh princes in the events leading up to the 1282 invasion itself.[86]
Creation of the World Heritage site
In 1986 sites were collectively declared a
Architecture
Interpretation
Military architecture
The Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd incorporated a range of military features developed during the late 13th century.[91] As a consequence, for much of the 20th century, historians regarded these sites as the evolutionary pinnacle of scientific military architecture. D. J. Cathcart King described them as the "zenith of English castle-building", and Sidney Toy considered them to be "some of the most powerful castles of any age or country".[2] The sites included concentric defences, in which inner castle walls were completely enclosed within outer defences, with the height and angles calculated to allow both rings of walls to fire on external attackers, as seen at Harlech and Beaumaris.[92] Narrow sites such as Conwy were instead built on tall rock formations, making any attack difficult.[93] Arrowslits and barbicans were incorporated into the defences, with multiple firing platforms built into the walls to allow the massed use of archers.[94] These were further defended in some cases by gatehouses with characteristic twin towers, which replaced the older keeps as a stronghold for defence.[95]
Despite these strengths, the castles and town walls are now recognised to have also had military flaws. The castles were much larger than they needed to be in order to protect against Welsh attack, but the sheer scale of them meant that the Crown could not afford to maintain or garrison them properly.[36] The fortifications were in some regards simply too big, and as historian Michael Prestwich notes, smaller projects might actually have been more effective.[36] Rather than the sites being scientifically designed, historian Richard Morris suggested that "the impression is firmly given of an elite group of men-of-war, long-standing comrades in arms of the king, indulging in an orgy of military architectural expression on an almost unlimited budget".[96]
Palatial architecture and symbolism
Architectural research in the late 20th and early 21st centuries focused less on the military aspects of the fortifications, however, and more on their roles as luxurious palaces and symbols of royal power. Each of the castles was designed to be suitable to support the royal court, should it visit. In the late 13th century, this meant having several sets of private chambers, discreet service facilities and security arrangements, producing, in effect, a royal palace in miniature.
The castles made a clear, imperial statement about Edward's intentions to rule North Wales on a permanent basis.[101] As already noted, they were typically located on sites that had been associated with the former Welsh princes.[102] Caernarfon, in particular, stands out for its use of banded, coloured stone in the walls, statues of eagles and its polygonal, rather than round, towers. There has been extensive academic debate over the interpretation of these features.[103] Historian Arnold Taylor argued that the design of the castle was a representation of the Walls of Constantinople. The conscious use of imagery from the Byzantine Roman Empire was therefore an assertion of authority by Edward I. Recent work by historian Abigail Wheatley suggests that the design of Caernarfon was indeed an assertion of Edward's authority, but that it drew on imagery from Roman sites in Britain with the intent of creating an allusion of Arthurian legitimacy for the king.[104][nb 3]
Savoy influence
The Edwardian sites have strong architectural links to castles and town walls built in the County of Savoy in North Italy during the same period.[106] The resemblance between the two sets of buildings was first noted by historian Arnold Taylor in the 1950s.[107] Similarities include the semi-circular door arches, window styles, corbelled towers, the positioning of putlog holes, tall circular towers and crenellations with pinnacles found in Edward's works in North Wales; in Savoy these can be seen in constructions such as the defences of Saillon, La Bâtiaz and Chillon Castles.[108] Many of these similarities have been considered to be the result of the influence of the Savoy architect Master James of St George, employed by Edward I, and who brought other Savoyard architects with him to North Wales.[109]
Early 21st-century research, however, suggested that Master James' role, and Savoyard influence more generally, may have been overstated.[110] The stonework of the sites in North Wales is of much higher quality than that in North Italy, and key features – such as the gatehouses – are not seen in Savoyard.[111] Research indicates that Master James also appears to have had a stronger project management function, rather than an architectural design role, in the development of the sites.[112] Furthermore, in some cases the relevant Savoy structures were built only after James had left the region, and would never have been seen by the architect.[112] The similarity in architectural details may, therefore, be the result of the wider role played by Savoy craftsmen and engineers on the projects, rather than that of a single individual.[112]
The sites
Beaumaris Castle
Beaumaris Castle was built at around sea-level and was constructed from local Anglesey stone.
Historian Arnold Taylor described Beaumaris as Britain's "most perfect example of symmetrical concentric planning", and for many years the castle was regarded as the pinnacle of military engineering during Edward I's reign.[120] The castle is considered by UNESCO to be a "unique artistic achievement" for the way in which is combines "characteristic 13th century double-wall structures with a central plan" and for the beauty of its "proportions and masonry".[121]
Harlech Castle
Harlech Castle rests upon the spur of rock called the Harlech Dome; the land falls away sharply on the north and west, and a ditch cut into the rock protects the remaining approaches to the castle.[122] The castle has a concentric design, with one line of defences enclosed by another, forming an inner and outer ward; the outer wall was originally somewhat taller than today.[123] Harlech is built from local grey-green sandstone, with large, regular blocks used for the towers and irregular material, possibly taken from the ditch, used for the walls.[124] The main entrance to the castle would have involved crossing a stone bridge between the two easterly ditch bridge towers and the main gatehouse; little remains of the bridge towers today and a timber entrance way to the gatehouse replaces the bridge.[125] A water gate overlooks a protected stairway of 127 steps that runs down to the foot of the cliffs.[126]
The gatehouse has two massive "D-shaped" defensive towers flanking the entrance.[127] The passage into the castle was guarded by three portcullises and at least two heavy doors.[128] The gatehouse has two upper floors, broken up into various rooms.[129] Each floor has three large windows overlooking the inner ward; the second floor has two additional grand windows on the sides of the gatehouse. The gatehouse was fitted with fireplaces and would originally have had prominent chimneys.[130] The inner ward is guarded by four large circular towers which at various times housed a dungeon and an artillery workshop.[131] Several ranges of buildings were built around the inner ward, including a chapel, kitchen, service buildings, a granary and a great hall.[132] The battlements may originally have been built with triple finials in a similar fashion to Conwy, although little remains of these in the modern era.[106]
Caernarfon Castle and town walls
Caernarfon Castle is divided into an upper and lower ward. The lower ward contained royal accommodation, while the upper consisted of service facilities and the accommodation for the garrison. These are surrounded by a curtain wall, defended by polygonal towers. Defensive firing galleries were built along the southern side of the castle. There are two main entrances, the King's Gate, leading from the town, and the Queen's Gate, allowing more direct access to the castle. All that remains of the buildings contained within the castle are the foundations.[133] If Caernarfon been completed as intended, it would have been able to contain a royal household of several hundred people.[134] In the opinion of military historian Allen Brown, Caernarfon was "one of the most formidable concentrations of fire-power to be found in the Middle Ages".[135]
Caernarfon's town walls present an unbroken, 734 m (2,408 ft) long circuit around the town, enclosing 4.18 hectares (10.3 acres).
Conwy Castle and town walls
Conwy Castle hugs a rocky coastal ridge of grey sandstone and limestone, and much of the stone from the castle is largely taken from the ridge itself, probably when the site was first cleared.[139] The castle has a rectangular plan and is divided into an inner and outer ward, with four large towers on each side.[140] The main entrance to the castle is through the western barbican, an exterior defence in front of the main gate.[141] The barbican features the earliest surviving stone machicolations in Britain.[142] A postern gate originally led down to the river where a small dock was built, allowing key visitors to enter the castle in private and for the fortress to be resupplied by boat.[143] Conwy's outer ward was originally crowded with administrative and service buildings.[144] The inner ward was separated from the outer by a wall, a drawbridge and a gate, protected by a ditch cut into the rock.[145] Inside, it contained the chambers for the royal household, their immediate staff and service facilities.[98] On the east side of the inner ward is another barbican, enclosing the castle garden.[146]
The Conwy town walls form a largely unbroken, 1.3 km (0.81 mi) long triangular circuit around the town, enclosing 10 hectares (25 acres).[147] They are mostly built from the same local sand- and limestone used at the castle, but with additional rhyolite stone used along the upper parts of the eastern walls.[148] When first built, the walls were possibly whitewashed.[149] The 21 surviving towers are mostly "gap-backed", lacking walls on the inside of the towers, and originally included removable wooden bridges to allow sections of the walls to be sealed off from attackers.[150] The tops of the walls feature an unusual design that uses a sequence of corbels to provide a flat, relatively wide wall-walk.[151] A unique set of twelve medieval latrines is built into the southern town walls, first constructed for the use of royal staff working in adjacent buildings in the 13th century.[152]
See also
- Ring of Iron a ring of castles built across Wales by King Edward I
- Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
- List of castles in Wales
- List of town walls in England and Wales
- Beaumaris town walls
- Archaeology of Wales
References
Notes
- ^ The name of the World Heritage Site represents the county of Gwynedd as it existed before 1996. Currently, only Caernarfon and Harlech are in Gwynedd, with Beaumaris being in the county of Anglesey and Conwy being in Conwy County Borough.
- Richard le Scrope was only around £500.[22]
- ^ During the 13th century, King Arthur was believed to have been of Roman origin.[105]
References
- ^ a b "Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd". UNESCO. Retrieved 15 November 2012.
- ^ a b King 1991, p. 107; Toy 1985, p. 153
- ^ TNA 372/131/26
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 5; Taylor 2004, pp. 6–7
- ^ a b Prestwich 2010, p. 1
- ^ Prestwich 2010, pp. 1–5
- ^ a b c Prestwich 2010, p. 4
- ^ a b Prestwich 2010, p. 5
- ^ Prestwich 2010, pp. 1–2
- ^ a b c d e f g h Prestwich 2010, p. 2
- ^ Prestwich 2010, p. 2; Prestwich 2003, pp. 12–13
- ^ a b Taylor 2004, p. 5
- ^ Stephenson 2010, p. 9; Prestwich 2010, p. 6
- ^ Creighton & Higham 2005, p. 101; Liddiard 2005, p. 55
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 47
- ^ Liddiard 2005, p. 55; Wheatley 2010, pp. 129–130
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 5
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 8
- ^ Pounds 1994, pp. 174, 177; Taylor 2008, pp. 8–9
- ^ Pounds 1994, p. 177
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 9; Taylor 2007, p. 8; Taylor 2008, pp. 12–13; Creighton & Higham 2005, p. 102
- ^ Given-Wilson 2011, p. 157
- ^ a b Lilley 2010, pp. 104–106
- ^ Taylor 2007, pp. 7–8; Prestwich 2010, p. 7
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 10; Brears 2010, p. 91
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 9; Prestwich 2010, p. 5
- ^ Taylor 2008, pp. 12–13
- ^ a b c Taylor 2004, p. 6
- ^ Taylor 2004, pp. 5–6
- ^ Taylor 2004, pp. 8, 11, 21
- ^ Taylor 2004, p. 8; Prestwich2003, p. 25; Taylor 2008, p. 15
- ^ Pounds 1994, p. 176; Prestwich 2003, p. 15
- ^ Taylor 2004, p. 8; Prestwich2003, p. 25
- ^ Taylor 2004, pp. 8, 10–11
- ^ Taylor 2004, pp. 8, 11; Taylor 2008, pp. 13, 15
- ^ a b c d e Prestwich 2010, p. 7
- ^ a b Ashbee 2007, p. 11
- ^ Taylor 2004, pp. 12–13
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 8
- ^ Ashbee 2007, pp. 11–12
- ^ a b Ashbee 2007, p. 12
- ^ Davies 1995, pp. 68–69
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 10; Liddiard 2005, p. 82; Ashbee 2007, p. 12
- ^ Ashbee 2007, pp. 12–13
- ^ Davies 1995, p. 105
- ^ a b Taylor 2008, p. 16
- ^ Taylor 2004, p. 14
- ^ Davies 1995, p. 115f; Taylor 2007, p. 10;Gravett 2007, p. 56
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 11
- ^ Hicks 2012, p. 179
- ^ Cannon 1997, p. 454; Taylor 2007, p. 11
- ^ Taylor 2008, p. 19
- ^ Taylor 2007, pp. 11–12
- ^ Ashbee 2007, pp. 13–14
- ^ Taylor 2004, pp. 14–15
- ^ Lilley 2010, p. 99
- ^ Taylor 2004, p. 15
- ^ Taylor 2004, pp. 14–15; Ashbee 2007, p. 14; Taylor 2007, p. 13; Taylor 2008, pp. 16–17
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 16; Taylor 2004, p. 14; Taylor 2008, p. 17
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 13
- ^ a b Thompson 1994, pp. 153–155.
- ^ Thompson 1994, p. 155
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 16
- ^ Thompson 1994, p. 155; Taylor 2007, p. 13
- ^ Taylor 2004, pp. 15, 17; Ashbee 2007, pp. 15–17
- ^ Taylor 2008, p. 17
- ^ Taylor 2004, p. 17; "Part 2: Significance and Vision" (PDF). Cadw. p. 62. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
- ^ a b Ashbee 2007, p. 18
- ^ "Part 2: Significance and Vision" (PDF). Cadw. pp. 54–55. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2012.
- ^ Taylor 2007, pp. 13–14; Ashbee 2007, p. 17
- ^ Avent 2010, pp. 140–141
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 18; Taylor 2004, pp. 15, 17
- ^ a b Kenyon 2010, p. 151
- ^ Avent 2010, pp. 143–148
- ^ Taylor 2008, p. 18
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 14; Taylor 2004, p. 17; Ashbee 2007, pp. 18–19
- ^ Taylor 2004, p. 17; Taylor 2007, p. 14
- ^ Ashbee 2007, pp. 18–19
- ^ Kenyon 2010, p. 150
- ^ Kenyon 2010, p. 152
- ^ Kenyon 2010, p. 153
- ^ "Part 2: Significance and Vision" (PDF). Cadw. p. 55. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2012.
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 14
- ^ "Communities and Culture Committee: Scrutiny Inquiry, Promoting Welsh Arts and Culture on the World Stage". National Assembly for Wales. Archived from the original on 14 April 2013. Retrieved 15 November 2012.
- ^ a b Jones 2010, pp. 198–199
- ^ Jones 2010, pp. 200–201
- ^ "Part 2: Significance and Vision" (PDF). Cadw. pp. 44–45. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2012.
- ^ "Part 2: Significance and Vision" (PDF). Cadw. p. 56. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2012.
- ^ "Part 2: Significance and Vision" (PDF). Cadw. p. 61. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2012.
- ^ "Part 2: Significance and Vision" (PDF). Cadw. pp. 72–74. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 15 November 2012.
- ^ King 1991, p. 107
- ^ King 1991, pp. 110, 115; Creighton & Higham 2003, p. 27
- ^ Toy 1985, p. 157
- ^ Toy 1985, p. 159
- ^ King 1991, pp. 116–117; Toy 1985, p. 153
- ^ Morris 1998, pp. 63–81 cited Liddiard 2005, p. 55
- ^ Brears 2010, p. 86
- ^ a b Ashbee 2007, pp. 34–35
- ^ Ashbee 2007, pp. 23–24
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 23
- ^ Prestwich 2010, p. 6
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 5;Liddiard 2005, p. 55; Wheatley 2010, pp. 129–130
- ^ Wheatley 2010, p. 129
- ^ Wheatley 2010, p. 136
- ^ a b Thompson 1991, p. 156; Wheatley 2010, p. 137
- ^ a b Taylor 2007, p. 29
- ^ Coldstream 2010, pp. 36–37
- ^ Coldstream 2010, pp. 38–39
- ^ Coldstream 2010, pp. 39–40
- ^ Coldstream 2010, p. 37
- ^ Coldstream 2010, pp. 40–41
- ^ a b c Coldstream 2010, p. 43
- ^ Lott 2010, pp. 118–119; Taylor 2004, p. 40.
- ^ Taylor 2004, p. 19
- ^ Taylor 2004, pp. 20, 39
- ^ Taylor 2004, p. 39
- ^ Taylor 2004, pp. 19, 39
- ^ Taylor 2004, pp. 19, 21
- ^ Taylor 2004, pp. 21–22
- ^ Taylor 1987, p. 125; Creighton & Higham 2003, p. 49; Toy 1985, p. 161
- ^ "Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd". UNESCO. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 17
- ^ Taylor 2007, pp. 17–18
- ^ Lott 2010, p. 116
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 18
- ^ Taylor 2007, pp. 17, 31
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 18; Goodall 2011, p. 217
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 21
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 25
- ^ Taylor 2007, p. 23
- ^ Taylor 2007, pp. 27–28
- ^ Taylor 2007, pp. 28–30
- ^ Taylor 2008, p. 24
- ^ Brears 2010, p. 91
- ^ Allen Brown 1984, p. 87
- ^ Creighton & Higham 2005, p. 23; Taylor, p. 41; Lilley, p. 106.
- ^ "World Heritage Site Management Plan: Part 1" (PDF). Cadw. p. 21. Retrieved 15 November 2012.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "World Heritage Site Management Plan: Part 1" (PDF). Cadw. p. 20. Retrieved 15 November 2012.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 21; Lott 2010, p. 115
- ^ Ashbee 2007, pp. 21, 24; Lepage 2012, p. 210
- ^ Ashbee 2007, pp. 24–25
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 25
- ^ Ashbee 2007, pp. 43–44
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 26
- ^ Ashbee 2007, pp. 32–33
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 43
- ^ Creighton & Higham 2005, p. 223; Ashbee 2007, pp. 47, 55
- ^ Lott 2010, p. 115
- ^ Creighton & Higham 2005, p. 136; Ashbee 2007, p. 50
- ^ Creighton & Higham 2005, p. 274; Ashbee 2007, p. 51
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 48; Creighton & Higham 2005, p. 125
- ^ Ashbee 2007, p. 62; Creighton & Higham 2005, p. 147
Bibliography
- Allen Brown, Reginald (1984), The Architecture of Castles: A Visual Guide, B. T. Batsford, ISBN 0-7134-4089-9
- Ashbee, Jeremy (2007), Conwy Castle, Cardiff, UK: Cadw, ISBN 978-1-85760-259-3
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