England–Wales border

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For the area loosely based around the border, see Welsh Marches.

England–Wales border
Ffin Cymru a Lloegr
Map showing the England–Wales border, and local authorities on either side
Characteristics
Entities England  Wales
Length160 miles (260 km)
History
Established784
Construction of Offa's Dyke
Current shape1972
Local Government Act 1972
TreatiesLaws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542

The England–Wales border, sometimes referred to as the Wales–England border or the Anglo-Welsh border, runs for 160 miles (260 km)

Severn estuary in the south, separating England and Wales.[2][3]

It has followed broadly the same line since the 8th century, and in part that of Offa's Dyke; the modern boundary was fixed in 1536, when the former marcher lordships which occupied the border area were abolished and new county boundaries were created. The administrative boundary of Wales was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1972. Whether Monmouthshire was part of Wales, or an English county treated for most purposes as though it were Welsh, was also settled by the 1972 Act, which included it in Wales.

Geography

Holt
, Wales, to the right
Bilingual "Welcome to Wales" sign
Bilingual "Welcome to England" sign

The modern boundary between Wales and England runs from the

Churchstoke including Corndon Hill. It then runs westwards to the River Teme, and follows the river southeastwards through Knighton before turning south towards the River Lugg at Presteigne, which is within Wales.[citation needed
]

The boundary continues southwards across hills to the

Severn estuary towards the Bristol Channel, with the small island of Flat Holm being administered as part of Wales and the neighbouring island of Steep Holm as part of England.[citation needed
]

Administrative boundary

The boundary passes between Flintshire, Wrexham County Borough, Powys, and Monmouthshire in Wales and Cheshire, Shropshire, Herefordshire and Gloucestershire in England.

History

Ancient Britain

The approximate limit of coin-minting tribes in south Britain, and the limits of the campaigns of Claudius and Aulus Plautius.

Before and during the

Britons. The topographical contrast between the mountainous western areas and the generally lower-lying areas to the east is reflected in the nature of ancient settlements, with the majority of hillforts in Britain found in this western area.[4]

Roman era

Distribution of the legions across the Roman Empire in 80 AD, showing two legions stationed near what would become the England-Wales border.[citation needed]

During the Roman occupation, the tribes of Wales (

Viroconium (Wroxeter), and Isca Augusta (Caerleon).[citation needed
]

In most of Wales, the militaristic nature of the occupation was in stark contrast to that of southeast Britain. As such, by the

Romano-British in the east, and the more independent and tribal kingdoms to the west. This western area was, however, largely Christian, and a number of successor states attempted to continue Roman practices. The most successful of these were the Kingdom of Gwynedd in the northwest, the Kingdom of Gwent and Glywysing in the southeast, the Kingdom of Dyfed in the southwest and the Kingdom of Powys in the east. Powys roughly coincided with the territory of the Celtic Cornovii tribe whose civitas or administrative centre during the Roman period was at Viroconium. Gwynedd, at the height of its power, extended as far east as the Dee estuary. Gradually, from the 5th century onwards, pagan tribes from the east, including the Angles and Saxons, conquered eastern and southern Britain, which later became England.[5][6]

In the south, the Welsh kingdom of Gwent broadly covered the same area as the pre-Roman Silures, traditionally the area between the rivers Usk, Wye and the Severn estuary. It was centred at different times on Venta (Caerwent), from which it derived its name, and Isca Augusta (Caerleon). Gwent generally allied with, and at various times was joined with, the smaller Welsh kingdom of Ergyng, centred in present-day southern Herefordshire west of the Wye (and deriving its name from the Roman town of Ariconium); and the larger kingdom of Glywysing in modern Glamorgan. The name Glywysing may indicate that it was founded by a British native of Glevum (Gloucester).[citation needed]

Medieval era

Peoples of southern Britain, circa 600 AD
Post-Roman Welsh kingdoms or tribes. The modern border between England and Wales is shown in purple.

The

Thames valley, Cotswolds and Hampshire areas. In 577, the Battle of Deorham in the southern Cotswolds was won by the Anglo-Saxons, and led to Wessex extending its control to the Severn estuary and the cities of Gloucester, Cirencester, and Bath. This severed the land link between the Britons of Wales and those of the south west peninsula. By about 600, however, the area of modern Gloucestershire east of the Severn, as well as most of Worcestershire, was controlled by another group, the Hwicce, who may have arisen from intermarriage between Anglo-Saxon and British leading families, possibly the successors to the pre-Roman Dobunni. The Hwicce came increasingly under Mercian hegemony.[citation needed
]

At the

Wrekinset in the northern part of what became Shropshire, and the Magonsæte in the southern part.[6] Further south, the area north west of the Severn later known as the Forest of Dean seems to have remained in British (that is, Welsh) hands until about 760.[7]

Offa's Dyke

Offa's Dyke near Clun in Shropshire
Main article: Offa's Dyke

After

Basingwerk in what became Flintshire, perhaps to protect recently acquired lands.[5] After Æthelbald was killed in 757, a brief civil war in Mercia then ended in victory for his distant cousin, Offa. As king, he rebuilt Mercia's hegemony over the southern English through military campaigns, and also caused the construction of Offa's Dyke, around the years 770 and 780.[8]

Wye valley and east of the Wye at Beachley, may in their view have been built for different purposes at different times, although their conclusions are themselves disputed.[8][9]

Offa's Dyke largely remained the frontier between the Welsh and English in later centuries. By the 9th century, the expanding power of Mercia led to it gaining control over Ergyng and nearby

Athelstan, "King of the English", summoned the Welsh kings including Hywel Dda of Deheubarth to a meeting at Hereford, and according to William of Malmesbury laid down the boundary between England and Wales, particularly the disputed southern stretch where he specified that the eastern bank of the Wye should form the boundary.[citation needed
]

By the mid-eleventh century, most of Wales had become united under the king of

Gruffudd ap Llywelyn. In 1055, he marched on Hereford and sacked the city. He also seized Morgannwg and the Kingdom of Gwent, together with substantial territories east of Offa's Dyke, and raided as far as Chester and Leominster.[6] He claimed sovereignty over the whole of Wales, a claim recognised by the English, and historian John Davies states that Gruffudd was "the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales.".[5] However, after his most powerful ally – Earl Elfgar of Mercia and East Anglia – died, Harold and Tostig Godwinson took advantage of the situation – Gruffudd being besieged in Snowdonia – and invaded Wales. In 1063, Gruffudd was killed by his own men. Harold returned many of the Welsh princes their lands, so that after Harold's death at the Battle of Hastings, Wales was again divided without a leader to resist the Normans.[citation needed
]

March of Wales

The River Wye, 1816 road bridge and castle at Chepstow. The river forms the boundary between Monmouthshire, Wales (left) and Gloucestershire, England (right)
Main article: Welsh Marches

Immediately after the

Gwent Levels (Welsh: Gwent Is-coed); over the whole of north east Wales as far west as the River Clwyd, an area known to the Welsh as the Perfeddwlad; and west of Offa's Dyke, especially in Powys where a new castle was named, after its lord, Montgomery.[5]

Domesday Book no doubt records the extent of English penetration into Wales. This suggests that Offa's Dyke still approximately represented the boundary between England and Wales. However, during the anarchy of Stephen various Welsh princes were able to occupy lands beyond it, including Whittington, Shropshire (see Whittington Castle) and Maelor Saesneg, hitherto in England. These lands were brought under English lordship by Henry II of England, but became Marcher lordships, and so part of Wales. This involved a loss of direct rule by the English crown.[11]

Over the next four centuries, Norman lords established mostly small lordships, at times numbering over 150, between the Dee and Severn and further west. The precise dates and means of formation of the lordships varied, as did their size. Hundreds of small castles, mostly of the

motte and bailey type, were built in the border area in the 12th and 13th centuries, predominantly by Norman lords as assertions of power as well as defences against Welsh raiders and rebels. Many new towns were established across the area, some such as Chepstow, Monmouth, Ludlow and Newtown becoming successful trading centres, and these tended to be a focus of English settlement. However, the Welsh continued to attack English soil and supported rebellions against the Normans.[5][6]

barons war.[12]

The

St. David's and Llandaff in the south, collectively defined an area which included both the Principality and the March, and coincided closely with later definitions of Wales.[5]

The

court of the Aberffraw dynasty.[5]

The Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 followed the conquest of the Principality by Edward I of England. It assumed the lands held by the Princes of Gwynedd under the title "Prince of Wales" as legally part of the lands of England, and established shire counties on the English model over those areas. The Council of Wales, based at Ludlow Castle, was also established in the 15th century to govern the area.[citation needed]

Formation of "England and Wales" and county boundaries

Main article:
marcher lordships green=other lordships blue=England[14]
Wales 1545 key: red=Wales blue=England magenta=threapwood[15]

However, the Marches remained outside the shire system, and at least nominally outside the control of the English monarchy, until the first

Henry VIII. Henry had not seen the need to reform the government of Wales at the beginning of his reign, but gradually he perceived a threat from some of the remaining Marcher lords and therefore instructed his chief minister, Thomas Cromwell
, to seek a solution. This, and a further Act in 1542, had the effect of annexing Wales to England and creating a single state and legal jurisdiction, commonly referred to as England and Wales. The powers of the marcher lordships were abolished, and their areas formed into new counties, or amalgamated into existing ones. At this point, the boundary between England and Wales, which has existed ever since, was effectively fixed. In the border areas, five new counties were created: Denbighshire, Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire, Brecknockshire and Monmouthshire; and Flintshire gained some additional territory. However, several of the marcher lordships were incorporated in whole or in part into English counties. The lordships of Ludlow, Clun, Caus and part of Montgomery were incorporated into Shropshire; and Wigmore, Huntington, Clifford and most of Ewyas were included in Herefordshire. According to John Davies:[5]

Thus was created the border between Wales and England, a border which has survived until today. It did not follow the old line of Offa's Dyke nor the eastern boundary of the Welsh dioceses; it excluded districts such as Oswestry and Ewias, where the Welsh language would continue to be spoken for centuries, districts which it would not be wholly fanciful to consider as Cambria irredenta. Yet, as the purpose of the statute was to incorporate Wales into England, the location of the Welsh border was irrelevant to the purposes of its framers.

Changes to the border after 1545

Changes after 1545
Date Details
1753–1760 Parts of Threapwood transferred to Wales and England[16]
1844 Litton and Cascob transferred to England from Wales
Bwlch Trewyn transferred to Wales from England
Welsh Bicknor transferred to England from Wales
Crooked Billet transferred to Wales from England[17]
1857 Threapwood incorporated partly into England and partly into Wales[18]
1865 Territorial waters extended to 3 nautical miles
1887 Stanford farm transferred to England from Wales
1891 Ffwddog transferred to Wales from England
1893 Llanrothal CP transferred to England from Wales[19]
1896 Part of Threapwood transferred to England from Wales
1972 Monmouthshire incorporated into Wales
1987 Territorial waters extended to 12 nautical miles[20]

There was a serious proposal to transfer English Maelor to England in the 19th century.[21]

Monmouthshire

Main article: Monmouthshire (historic)

Although Monmouthshire was included in the 16th century legislation, it was treated anomalously, with the result that its legal status as a Welsh county fell into some ambiguity and doubt until the 20th century.

1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, it gradually "came to be regarded as an English county".[23] Under that interpretation, the boundary between England and Wales passed down the Rhymney valley, along Monmouthshire's western borders with Brecknockshire and Glamorgan, so including Newport, and other industrialised parts of what would now generally be considered to be South Wales, within England.[citation needed
]

The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica unambiguously described the county as part of England, but noted that "whenever an act [...] is intended to apply to [Wales] alone, then Wales is always coupled with Monmouthshire". Some legislation and UK government decisions, such as the establishment of a "Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire" in 1908,[24] referred to "Wales and Monmouthshire", so that it was treated as one with Wales rather than as a legal part of Wales. The county's status continued to be a matter of debate in Parliament, especially as Welsh nationalism and devolution climbed the political agenda in the 20th century. In 1921 the area was included within the Church in Wales. The Welsh Office, established in 1965, included Monmouthshire within its remit, and in 1969 George Thomas, Secretary of State for Wales, proposed to fully incorporate Monmouthshire into Wales. The issue was finally clarified in law by the Local Government Act 1972,[22] which provided that "in every act passed on or after 1 April 1974, and in every instrument made on or after that date under any enactment (whether before, on or after that date) "Wales", subject to any alterations of boundaries..." included "the administrative county of Monmouthshire and the county borough of Newport".[25] The legal boundary between England and Wales therefore passes along Monmouthshire's eastern boundaries with Herefordshire and Gloucestershire, essentially along the River Monnow and River Wye.

The border today

English and Welsh boundaries

Main article:
Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542
southwest towards the Bristol Channel with England on the left and Wales on the right. The Second Severn Crossing is in the distance.
The Severn Bridge
is in the foreground.

The first legislation applying solely to Wales since the 16th century was passed in 1881. Subsequently, the border between England and Wales has taken on increasing legal and political significance.

Until the Welsh Disestablishment in 1920, the Diocese of St Asaph included parts of north-west Shropshire. The parishes transferred to the Diocese of Lichfield were: Criftins, Hengoed, Kinnerley, Knockin, Llanyblodwell, Llanymynech, Melverley, Morton, Oswestry, St Martins, Selattyn, Trefonen, Weston Rhyn and Whittington.[citation needed]

In 1965, a separate government department, the

urban regeneration,[26] although the extent to which it was able to be autonomous from England in public policy is a matter of debate.[27]

The establishment of

Welsh Assembly, set up in 1999, has led to a divergence between England and Wales on some government policies. For example, prescription charges were abolished in Wales in 2007.[28] In 2008, residents of the village of Audlem, Cheshire, 9 miles (14 km) from the border, "voted" to become part of Wales in what was originally a joke ballot. Some residents sought to make a case for securing Welsh benefits such as free hospital parking and prescriptions.[29] The modern border lies between the town of Knighton and its railway station, and divides the village of Llanymynech where a pub straddles the line. Knighton is the only town that can claim to be on the border as well as on Offa's Dyke. The postal and ecclesiastical borders are in places slightly different – for example the Shropshire village of Chirbury has Montgomery, as its post town, and the Welsh town of Presteigne is in the English Diocese of Hereford
.

National League North football club Chester F.C.'s ground at Deva Stadium straddles the border, with the car park and some of the offices in England but the pitch in Wales. In the 2021–22 season, the club was threatened with legal action for failing to apply the COVID-19 regulations applying in Wales and allowing crowds to attend matches at the ground.[30]

A competition was launched in 2005 to design one or more new iconic images, along the same lines as the "Angel of the North", to be placed at the borders of Wales.[31] This became known as the "Landmark Wales" project, and a shortlist of 15 proposals was unveiled in 2007.[32][33] However, the proposal was shelved after it failed to receive Lottery funding.[34]

The main road links over the border in the south are the M4 Second Severn Crossing and the M48 Severn Bridge.[35][36] In July 2017, the

VAT was removed.[38] All tolls ceased on 17 December 2018.[39]

Lost Lands of Wales

Map of Offa's and Watt's dykes at the time Offa's dyke was constructed with the modern border overlaid onto it[40][41][42]

The Lost Lands of Wales was a political idea of the mid-1960s[citation needed] which called into question the status of areas along the east side of the England–Wales border, which its proponents regarded as Welsh.[citation needed] The idea related to parts of the counties of Cheshire, Gloucestershire, Herefordshire and Shropshire.

The Lost Lands Liberation League was reportedly a minor group in the 1960s claiming to recover the "Lost Lands" for Wales.[citation needed] Some Welsh nationalist organisations have campaigned on the issue,[clarification needed] although Plaid Cymru does not. The group is associated with Gethin ap Gruffydd.[citation needed]

Place names

Map to show proportion of Welsh speakers in Wales according to the 2021 census[43]

In general,

placenames of Welsh origin are found to the west of the border, and those of English origin to the east. However, many historically Welsh names are also found east of the border, particularly around Oswestry[44] in northern Shropshire, such as Gobowen and Trefonen; in southern Shropshire, such as Clun; and in southern Herefordshire, such as Kilpeck and Pontrilas[45]. Most of these areas were not incorporated fully into England until the 16th century,[46] and native Welsh speakers still lived there until at least the 19th century[47]. Equally, placenames of English origin can be found on the Welsh side of the border where there was Mercian and Norman settlement, particularly in the north east, such as Flint, Wrexham and Prestatyn; in English Maelor, such as Overton; in central Powys, such as Newtown and Knighton; and in southeastern Monmouthshire, including Chepstow and Shirenewton.[48]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Crossing the border: road and rail links between England and Wales - Welsh Affairs Committee". Parliament of the United Kingdom. 6 March 2013. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
  2. ^ "The Countries of the UK". Office for National Statistics. 6 April 2010. Retrieved 31 March 2013.
  3. ^ "'Urgent clarification' over Wales stamp duty tax call". BBC. 21 January 2017. Retrieved 12 May 2017.
  4. ^ Forde-Johnston, J. (1976). Hillforts of the Iron Age in England and Wales: A Survey of the Surface Evidence. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.
  5. ^
    ISBN 0-14-028475-3
    .
  6. ^
    ISBN 0-7524-1917-X
    .
  7. ASIN B0006F5DCE
    .
  8. ^
    ISBN 0-7524-1958-7
    .
  9. ^ Bapty, Ian. "The Final Word on Offa's Dyke? Review of Offa's Dyke: History and Guide, by David Hill and Margaret Worthington". Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  10. ^ Greene, Miranda (2005). "The end of the Romans and the beginning of the Saxons". Herefordshire Council. Archived from the original on 3 November 2011. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  11. ^ Brown, P.; King, P.; Remfry, P. (2004). "'Whittington Castle: the marcher fortress of the Fitz Warin family". Shropshire Archaeology and History. LXXIX: 106–8.
  12. ^ "The Story of Llywelyn the Great". celticlifeintl. 2021. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
  13. ^ "Earls of Chester - Chesterwiki". chester.shoutwiki.com.
  14. ^ "Laws in Wales Acts". The National library of wales. 2024. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
  15. ^ "Threapwood". Threapwood history group. 2010. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
  16. ^ https://www.clwydfhs.org.uk/en/churches/threapwood-2022-08-30%7Caccess-date=19 April 2024
  17. ^ "Historic boundaries". The Historic Counties Trust. 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
  18. ^ http://www.threapwoodhistory.org%7Caccess-date=19 April 2024
  19. ^ "LlanrothalAP/CP". A vision of Britain through time. 2009. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
  20. UK Parliament
    . 3 July 2017. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
  21. ^ https://www.wrexham-history.com/
  22. ^ a b "Monmouthshire". BBC. August 2009. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  23. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Monmouthshire" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 729.
  24. ^ "National Archives: Welsh Office". National Archives. Archived from the original on 19 November 2007. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  25. ^ Local Government Act 1972 (c.70), sections 1, 20 and 269
  26. ^ a b The Welsh Academy Encyclopedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. 2008.
  27. doi:10.1111/1467-9299.00180
    .
  28. ^ "Prescription charges end in Wales". BBC News. 1 April 2007. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
  29. ^ Williams, Brendon (25 April 2008). "English village votes to be Welsh". BBC News. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  30. ^ MacInnes, Paul (7 January 2022). "English football club Chester warned for breaking Welsh Covid rules". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
  31. ^ "Gateway sculpture plan for Wales". BBC News. 5 May 2005. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  32. ^ "Gateway sculptures artists chosen". BBC News. 8 February 2007. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  33. ^ "Iconic Welsh gateways". BBC News. 13 April 2007. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  34. ^ "Giant postcard misses shortlist". BBC News. 23 October 2007. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  35. ^ "Councillor's campaign to end Severn Bridge toll". Wales Online. 6 November 2008. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  36. ^ "Drivers fear "hammer blow" rise in toll fees at Severn bridges". This is Bristol. 15 October 2008. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
  37. ^ Slawson, Nicola (21 July 2017). "Severn crossings tolls to be scrapped next year". The Guardian.
  38. ^ "Severn Bridge tolls to be reduced in January 2018". BBC News. 15 September 2017.
  39. ^ "Severn tolls axed". BBC News Online. 2 October 2018. Retrieved 2 October 2018.
  40. ^ "Map showing the relationship between the modern Anglo-Welsh border... | Download Scientific Diagram".
  41. ^ "History of Offa's Dyke". English Heritage.
  42. ^ https://offasdyke.org.uk/history/
  43. ^ "Census Maps - Census 2021 data interactive, ONS". www.ons.gov.uk.
  44. ^ "Place-Names of Shropshire". University of Wales.
  45. ^ "FreeCEN Lancashire - Welsh place names". sites.rootsweb.com.
  46. ^ "Laws in Wales Acts (1535-42) | Exploring Celtic Civilizations".
  47. JSTOR j.ctt9qhg9t
    – via JSTOR.
  48. ^ Jones, Branwen (18 August 2022). "The unique origins of our most well-known Welsh place names". Wales Online.

Further reading

  • Quinault, Roland (2014). "Unofficial Frontiers: Welsh-English Borderlands in the Victorian Period". Borderlands in World History, 1700–1914. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 279–292.
    ISBN 978-1-137-32058-2
    .
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