History of Wales
History of Wales |
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Part of a series on the |
Culture of Wales |
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People |
Art |
The history of what is now
In the
Wales became part of the
Prehistoric era
The earliest known human remains discovered in modern-day Wales is a
Following the last ice age, Wales became roughly the shape it is today by about 8000 BC and was inhabited by
Metal tools first appeared in Wales about 2500 BC, initially copper followed by bronze. The climate during the Early Bronze Age (c. 5000–1400 BC) is thought to have been warmer than at present, as there are many remains from this period in what are now bleak uplands. The Late Bronze Age (c. 1400–750 BC) saw the development of more advanced bronze implements. Much of the copper for the production of bronze probably came from the copper mine on the Great Orme, where prehistoric mining on a very large scale dates largely from the middle Bronze Age.[5] Radiocarbon dating has shown the earliest hillforts in what would become Wales, to have been constructed during this period. Historian John Davies, theorises that a worsening climate after around 1250 BC (lower temperatures and heavier rainfall) required more productive land to be defended.[6]
The earliest iron implement found in Wales is a sword from
A tendency to see the creation of hillforts as evidence of a Celtic invasion that also brought a Celtic language to the Britain has been dealt a blow by recognition that the earliest forts predate the arrival of Iron Age Celtic culture by hundreds of years. The present tendency is to reject the hypothesis of mass invasion in favour of more sporadic migration and a cultural spread of language and ideas, a "culminative Celticity".[6]
Roman era
The Roman conquest of Wales began in AD 48 and took 30 years to complete; the occupation lasted over 300 years.[9] The most famous of resistance was led by Caradog of the Celtic Catuvellauni tribe (modern day Essex), which were defeated by the Romans. Now leading the Celtic tribes of the Ordovices and Silures (of present day Monmouthshire), Caradog led a successful guerilla war against the Romans. His armies were eventually defeated at the Battle of Caer Caradog on the Anglo-Welsh border in AD 50. Caradog was later taken to Rome and gave a speech, impressing the Roman emperor to the extent that he was pardoned and allowed to live peacefully in Rome.[10]
The Roman conquest was completed in 78, with Roman rule lasting until 383. Roman rule in Wales was a military occupation, save for the southern coastal region of South Wales east of the Gower Peninsula, where there is a legacy of Romanisation.[9] The only town in Wales founded by the Romans, Caerwent, is located in South Wales. Both Caerwent and Carmarthen, also in southern Wales, would become Roman civitates.[11]
By AD 47, Rome had invaded and conquered all of southernmost and southeastern Britain under the first
The Demetae of southwestern Wales seem to have quickly made their peace with the Romans, as there is no indication of war with Rome, and their homeland was not heavily planted with forts nor overlaid with roads. The Demetae would be the only Welsh tribe to emerge from Roman rule with their homeland and tribal name intact.[a]
Wales was a rich source of mineral wealth and the Romans used their
Subsequent medieval Welsh lore developed a series of legends around Macsen Wledig, a literary and mythical figure derived from
Early Middle Ages: 383–1000
When the Roman garrison of Britain was withdrawn in 410, the various British states were left self-governing. Evidence for a continuing Roman influence after the departure of the Roman legions is provided by an inscribed stone from Gwynedd dated between the late 5th and mid-6th centuries commemorating a certain Cantiorix who was described as a citizen (cives) of Gwynedd and a cousin of Maglos the magistrate (magistratus).[17] There was considerable Irish colonisation in Dyfed, where there are many stones with ogham inscriptions.[18] Wales had become Christian under the Romans, and the 'age of the saints' (approximately 500–700) was marked by the establishment of monastic settlements throughout the country, by religious leaders such as Saint David, Illtud and Saint Teilo.[19]
One of the reasons for the Roman withdrawal was the pressure put upon the empire's military resources by the incursion of barbarian tribes from the east. These tribes, including the Angles and Saxons, gradually took control of eastern and southern Britain. At the Battle of Chester in 616, the forces of Powys and other British kingdoms were defeated by the Northumbrians under Æthelfrith, with king Selyf ap Cynan among the dead.[20] It has been suggested that this battle finally severed the land connection between Wales and the kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd ("Old North"), the Brittonic-speaking regions of what is now southern Scotland and northern England, including Rheged, Strathclyde, Elmet and Gododdin, where Old Welsh was also spoken.[citation needed] From the 8th century on, Wales was by far the largest of the three remnant Brittonic areas in Britain, the other two being the Hen Ogledd and Cornwall.
Wales was divided into a number of separate kingdoms, the largest of these being
Rise of Gwynedd: 700–1066
Powys as the easternmost of the major kingdoms of Wales came under the most pressure from the English in Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire. This kingdom originally extended east into areas now in England, and its ancient capital, Pengwern, has been variously identified as modern Shrewsbury or a site north of Baschurch.[23] These areas were lost to the kingdom of Mercia. The construction of the earthwork known as Offa's Dyke (usually attributed to Offa of Mercia in the 8th century) may have marked an agreed border.[24]
For a single man to rule the whole country during this period was rare. This is often ascribed to the inheritance system practised in Wales. All sons received an equal share of their father's property (including illegitimate sons), resulting in the division of territories. However, the Welsh laws prescribe this system of division for land in general, not for kingdoms, where there is provision for an edling (or heir) to the kingdom to be chosen, usually by the king. Any son, legitimate or illegitimate, could be chosen as edling and there were frequently disappointed candidates prepared to challenge the chosen heir.[b]
The first to rule a considerable part of Wales was
Wales was now coming under increasing attack by Vikings, particularly Danish raids in the period between 950 and 1000. According to the chronicle Brut y Tywysogion, Godfrey Haroldson carried off two thousand captives from Anglesey in 987, and the king of Gwynedd, Maredudd ab Owain is reported to have redeemed many of his subjects from slavery by paying the Danes a large ransom.[29]
Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was the only ruler to be able to unite the Welsh kingdoms under his rule. Originally king of Gwynedd, by 1055 he was ruler of almost all of Wales and had annexed parts of England around the border. However, he was defeated by Harold Godwinson in 1063 and killed by his own men. His territories were again divided into the traditional kingdoms.[30][31]
High Middle Ages: 1000–1283
Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was the only ruler to be able to unite Wales under his rule. In 1055 Gruffydd ap Llywelyn killed his rival Gruffydd ap Rhydderch in battle and recaptured Deheubarth.[32]
Originally king of Gwynedd, by 1057 he was the ruler of Wales and had annexed parts of England around the border. His territories were again divided into the traditional kingdoms.[30]
Historian John Davies stated that Gruffydd was, "the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales... Thus, from about 1057 until his death in 1063, the whole of Wales recognised the kingship of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn. For about seven brief years, Wales was one, under one ruler, a feat with neither precedent nor successor."[33] During this time, between 1053 and 1063, Wales lacked any internal strife and was at peace.[34]
Norman invasion
After passing the Statute of Rhuddlan, which restricted Welsh law, King Edward's ring of impressive stone castles assisted the domination of Wales, and he crowned his conquest by giving the title Prince of Wales to his son and heir in 1301.[52] Wales became, effectively, part of England, even though its people spoke a different language and had a different culture. English kings appointed a Council of Wales, sometimes presided over by the heir to the throne. This Council normally sat in Ludlow, now in England but at that time still part of the disputed border area in the Welsh Marches. Welsh literature, particularly poetry, continued to flourish however, with the lesser nobility now taking over from the princes as the patrons of the poets. Dafydd ap Gwilym, who flourished in the middle of the 14th century, is considered by many to be the greatest of the Welsh poets.
There were a number of rebellions including ones led by
In 1400, a Welsh nobleman, Owain Glyndŵr, revolted against Henry IV of England. Owain inflicted a number of defeats on the English forces and for a few years controlled most of Wales. Some of his achievements included holding the first Welsh Parliament at Machynlleth and plans for two universities. Eventually the king's forces were able to regain control of Wales and the rebellion died out, but Owain himself was never captured. His rebellion caused a great upsurge in Welsh identity and he was widely supported by Welsh people throughout the country.[55]
As a response to Glyndŵr's rebellion, the English parliament passed the
In the
In 1485 Jasper's nephew, Henry Tudor, landed in Wales with a small force to launch his bid for the throne of England. Henry was of Welsh descent, counting princes such as Rhys ap Gruffydd among his ancestors, and his cause gained much support in Wales. Henry defeated King Richard III of England at the Battle of Bosworth Field with an army containing many Welsh soldiers and gained the throne as Henry VII of England. Henry VII again created a Council of Wales and the Marches for his son Prince Arthur.[57]
Under his son,
Early modern period
Following
Bishop
Education in Wales was at a very low ebb in this period, with the only education available being in English while the majority of the population spoke only Welsh. In 1731,
The 18th century also saw the Welsh Methodist revival, led by Daniel Rowland, Howell Harris and William Williams Pantycelyn.[67]
Nonconformity was a significant influence in Wales from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries. The
The end of the 18th century saw the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution, and the presence of iron ore, limestone and large coal deposits in south-east Wales meant that this area soon saw the establishment of ironworks and coal mines, notably the Cyfarthfa Ironworks and the Dowlais Ironworks at Merthyr Tydfil.
Modern history
1800–1914
The modern history of Wales starts in the 19th century when South Wales became heavily industrialised with ironworks; this, along with the spread of coal mining to the Cynon and Rhondda valleys from the 1840s, led to an increase in population.[69] The social effects of industrialisation resulted in armed uprisings against the mainly English owners.[70] Socialism developed in South Wales in the latter part of the century, accompanied by the increasing politicisation of religious Nonconformism. The first Labour MP, Keir Hardie, was elected as a junior member for the Welsh constituency of Merthyr Tydfil and Aberdare in 1900.[71]
The population of Wales doubled to over one million between 1801 and 1851 and doubled again, reaching 2,421,000 by 1911. Most of the increase came in the coal mining districts especially
The first decade of the 20th century was the period of the coal boom in South Wales when population growth exceeded 20 per cent.[74][page needed] Demographic changes affected the language frontier; the proportion of Welsh speakers in the Rhondda valley fell from 64 per cent in 1901 to 55 per cent ten years later, and similar trends were evident elsewhere in South Wales.[75][page needed]
The
Kenneth O. Morgan argues that the 1850-1914 era:
was a story of growing political democracy with the hegemony of the Liberals in national and local government, of an increasingly thriving economy in the valleys of South Wales, the world's dominant coal-exporting area with massive ports at Cardiff and Barry, increasingly buoyant literature and a revival in the eisteddfod, and of much vitality in the nonconformist chapels especially after the short-lived impetus from the ‘great revival’, Y Diwygiad Mawr, of 1904–5. Overall, there was a pervasive sense of strong national identity, with a national museum, a national library and a national university as its vanguard.[77]
1914–1945
The world wars and interwar period were hard times for Wales, in terms of the faltering economy of antiwar losses. Men eagerly volunteered for war service.
Post war to present
In the immediate period after the
Meanwhile growing calls to recognise the Welsh language at an institutional level led to the passing of the Welsh Language Act 1967. The Welsh language was thus formally recognised as a legitimate language in legal and administrative contexts for the first time in English law.[82] The proportion of the Welsh population able to speak the Welsh language was declining, falling from just under 50% in 1901 to 43.5% in 1911 and reaching a low of 18.9% in 1981. It has risen slightly since.[83]
In a
The Government of Wales Act 2006 (c 32) of the UK Parliament reformed the
Historiography
Until recently, says Martin Johnes:
- the historiography of modern Wales was rather narrow. Its domain was the fortunes of the Liberals and Labour, the impact of trade unions and protest, and the cultural realms of nonconformity and the Welsh language. This was not surprising—all emergent fields start with the big topics and the big questions—but it did give much of Welsh academic history a rather particular flavour. It was institutional and male, and yet still concerned with fields of enquiry that lay outside the confines of the British establishment.[89]
See also
- History of the United Kingdom
- Welsh historical documents
- Archaeology of Wales
- List of Anglo-Welsh Wars
References
Notes
Citations
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 3.
- ^ Richards & Trinkaus 2009.
- ^ Lynch 2000, pp. 34–42, 58.
- ^ Whittle 1992.
- ^ Lynch 1995, pp. 39–40.
- ^ a b c Davies 2009, p. 23.
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 19.
- ^ Lynch 1995, pp. 249–277.
- ^ a b Jones & Mattingly 1990, p. 151.
- ^ Webster 2019, pp. 37–39.
- ^ Jones & Mattingly 1990, pp. 154.
- ^ Giles 1841, pp. 27.
- ^ a b Jones & Mattingly 1990, pp. 179–196.
- ^ Davies 2000, p. 78.
- ^ Koch 2006, pp. 1231–1233.
- ^ Harbus 2002, pp. 52–63.
- ^ Lynch 1995, p. 126.
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 52.
- ^ Lloyd 1911a, pp. 143–159.
- ^ Charles-Edwards 2013, p. 345.
- ^ Lloyd 1911a, p. 131.
- ^ Maund 2006, p. 36.
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 64.
- ^ Davies 1994, pp. 65–66.
- ^ Stephenson 1984, pp. 138–141.
- ^ Maund 2006, pp. 50–54.
- ^ Lloyd 1911a, p. 337.
- ^ Lloyd 1911a, pp. 343–344.
- ^ Lloyd 1911a, pp. 351–352.
- ^ a b Maund 2006, pp. 87–97.
- ^ Maund 1991, p. 64.
- ^ Jones 1959.
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 100.
- ^ Maund 1991, p. 216.
- ^ Davies 1987, pp. 28–30.
- ^ Maund 2006, p. 110.
- ^ Remfry 2003, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Lloyd 1911b, p. 398.
- ^ Maund 2006, pp. 162–171.
- ^ Lloyd 1911b, pp. 508–509.
- ^ Lloyd 1911b, p. 536.
- ^ Moore 2005, pp. 108–109.
- ^ Moore 2005, p. 124.
- ^ Carpenter 2015.
- ^ a b Pierce 1959.
- ^ Lloyd 1911b, p. 693.
- ^ Powicke 1962, p. 409.
- ^ Prestwich 2007, p. 151.
- ^ Davies 2000, p. 353.
- ^ Jones 1969.
- ^ Pilkington 2002, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Davies 1987, p. 386.
- ^ Moore 2005, p. 159.
- ^ Moore 2005, pp. 164–166.
- ^ Moore 2005, pp. 169–185.
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 199.
- ^ Williams 1987, pp. 217–226.
- ^ Williams 1987, pp. 268–273.
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 233.
- ^ a b Davies 2008, p. 572.
- ^ Williams 1987, pp. 322–323.
- ^ Morgan 2009, pp. 22–36.
- ^ Jenkins 1987, p. 7.
- ^ Jenkins 1987, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 280.
- ^ Jenkins 1987, pp. 370–377.
- ^ Jenkins 1987, pp. 347–350.
- ^ Yalden 2004, pp. 293–324.
- ^ Williams 1985, p. 183.
- ^ Davies 1994, pp. 366–367.
- ^ Morgan 1981, pp. 46–47.
- ^ Mitchell 1962, pp. 20, 22.
- ^ O'Leary 2002, p. 302.
- ^ Jenkins 1987.
- ^ Evans 1989.
- ^ Gitre 2004, pp. 792–827.
- ^ a b c Morgan 2015, p. 95.
- ^ Phillips 1993, pp. 94–105.
- ^ Morgan 1981, pp. 206–8, 272.
- ^ Wales Since 1939 By Martin Johnes, 2013
- ^ Davies 1994, p. 533.
- ^ Baker 1985, p. 169.
- ^ Davies 1993, pp. 56, 67.
- ^ Wyn Jones 2012, p. loc:400.
- ^ Wyn Jones 2012.
- ^ Expert Panel on Assembly Electoral Reform 2017, p. 33.
- ^ Expert Panel on Assembly Electoral Reform 2017, p. 33-34.
- ^ Expert Panel on Assembly Electoral Reform 2017, p. 18, 33-34.
- ^ Johnes 2016.
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - O'Leary, Paul (2002). Immigration and integration : the Irish in Wales, 1798-1922. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0708317679.
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{{cite journal}}
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(help) - Wyn Jones, Richard (2012). Wales says yes : devolution and the 2011 Welsh referendum. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-7083-2485-1.
- Yalden, Peter (April 2004). "Association, Community and the Origins of Secularisation: English and Welsh Nonconformity, c. 1850–1930". The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 55 (2): 293–324. ISSN 1469-7637.
Religion
- Chambers, Paul, and Andrew Thompson. "Coming to terms with the past: religion and identity in Wales." Social compass 52.3 (2005): 337–352.
- Davies, Ebnezer Thomas. Religion in the Industrial Revolution of South Wales (U. of Wales Press, 1965)
- Jenkins, Geraint H. Literature, religion and society in Wales, 1660-1730 (University of Wales Press, 1978)
- Horace Mann (1854). Census of Great Britain, 1851: Religious Worship in England and Wales. Ge. Routledge.
- Morgan, Derec Llwyd. The Great Awakening in Wales (Epworth Press, 1988)
- Walker, R. B. "The Growth of Wesleyan Methodism in Victorian England and Wales." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 24.03 (1973): 267–284.
- Williams, Glanmor. The Welsh Church from Conquest to Reformation (University of Wales Press, 1976)
- Williams, Glanmor. The Welsh Church from Reformation to Disestablishment: 1603–1920 (University of Wales Press, 2007)
- Williams, Glanmor, ed. Welsh reformation essays (University of Wales Press, 1967)
- Yalden, Peter. "Association, Community and the Origins of Secularisation: English and Welsh Nonconformity, c. 1850–1930." The Journal of Ecclesiastical History 55.02 (2004): 293–324.
Historiography
- Evans, Neil. Writing a Small Nation's Past: Wales in Comparative Perspective, 1850–1950 (Routledge, 2016).
- Giles, John Allen, ed. (1841), "The Works of Gildas", The Works of Gildas and Nennius, London: James Bohn
- Withey, Alun. "Unhealthy Neglect? The Medicine and Medical Historiography of Early Modern Wales." Social history of medicine 21.1 (2008): 163–174. online
Primary sources
- Brut y Tywysogyon or The Chronicle of the Princes. Peniarth Ms. 20 version, ed. and trans. T. Jones [Cardiff, 1952]
- Annales Cambriae. A Translation of Harleian 3859; PRO E.164/1; Cottonian Domitian, A 1; Exeter Cathedral Library MS. 3514 and MS Exchequer DB Neath, PRO E (ISBN 1-899376-81-X)
External links
- Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales
- National Library of Wales official website - includes historical information and resources
- BBC History – Wales
- History and Ancestry webpage from the Welsh Government