Germanisation of Poles during the Partitions
After partitioning Poland at the end of the 18th century, the Kingdom of Prussia and later the German Empire imposed a number of Germanisation policies and measures in the newly gained territories, aimed at limiting the Polish ethnic presence and culture in these areas. This process continued through its various stages until the end of World War I, when most of the territories became part of the Second Polish Republic, which largely limited the capacity of further Germanisation efforts of the Weimar Republic until the occupation during World War II. The genocidal policies of Nazi-Germany against ethnic Poles between 1939 and 1945 can be understood as a continuation of previous Germanisation processes.[citation needed]
Until the Unification of Germany
Following the partitions, the previous Germanisation attempts pursued by Frederick the Great in largely Roman Catholic and formerly Austrian Silesia were naturally extended to encompass the newly gained Polish territories. The Prussian authorities started the policy of settling German speaking ethnic groups in these areas. Frederick the Great settled around 300,000 colonists in the eastern provinces of Prussia and aimed at a removal of the Polish nobility, which he treated with contempt and described Poles as 'slovenly Polish trash'[1] in newly reconquered West Prussia, to the Iroquois, who he saw as equally uncivilized.[2] From the beginnings of Prussian rule Poles were subject to a series of measures aimed against them and their culture; Polish was replaced by German as the official language,[3] and most administration was made German as well; the Prussian ruler Frederick the Great despised Poles and hoped to replace them with Germans. Poles were portrayed as 'backward Slavs' by Prussian officials who wanted to spread German language and culture.[3] The land of Polish nobility was confiscated and given to German nobles.[1][3] Another colonization attempt aimed at Germanisation was pursued by Prussia after 1832,[4] and while Poles constituted 73% of the population in 1815, they were reduced to 60% in 1848, while at the same time the German presence grew from 25% to 30%.[5]
1815–1831
The Prussian hold on Polish areas was somewhat weakened after 1807, where parts of its partition were restored to
The base support of Prussian rule was from the influx of German colonists, officials and tradesmen, whose immigration started in 1772 due to Partitions of Poland, and while it was halted in 1806, it soon was reinstated after 1815 as planned systemic action of Prussian government.[6] The Prussians knew exactly that Polish aspirations were involved with independence; however, they were considering at the time two different methods to subdue Polish resistance.[6] One advocated ruthless Germanisation of the Polish provinces, the other pursued by Chancellor Hardenberg, wanted to gain support of Polish higher classes, while turning them away from Russian Tsar Alexander I.[6]
Initially, the position of the Chancellor prevailed. At the same time, Prussians and Russians, through secret police, worked together against Polish movements that would seek independence either from Russia or Prussia, and Prussian representative in Warsaw helped to create political climate that would abolish constitutional freedoms in Congress Poland.[6] The situation in Polish areas of Prussia was calmed down after a series of proclamations and assuring the Polish right to their education, religion and traditions. In the end, the Polish rights were defined very narrowly, and Prussia started to abolish Polish in administration, schooling, and courts.[6] In 1819 the gradual elimination of Polish in schools began, with German being introduced in its place.[6] This procedure was briefly stopped in 1822, but restarted in 1824.
In 1825 August Jacob, a politician hostile to Poles, gained power over newly created Provincial Educational Collegium in Posen (Poznań).[6] Across the Polish territories, Polish teachers were being removed from work, German educational programs were being introduced, and primary schooling was being replaced by German one that aimed at the creation of loyal Prussian citizens.[6] Already in 1816 the Polish gymnasium in Bromberg (Bydgoszcz) was turned into a German school and Polish was removed from classes.
In 1825 the Teacher's Seminary in Bromberg was Germanized as well.[6] While in 1824 a Provincial Parliament was invoked in Greater Poland, the representation was based on a wealth census, meaning that the result gave most of the power to German minority in the area.[6] Even when Poles managed to issue calls asking for enforcing of the guarantees formulated in treaties of Congress of Vienna and proclamations of Prussian King in 1815 they were rejected by Prussia.[6] Thus, neither the attempt to create Polish University in Posen nor Polish Society of Friends of Agriculture, Industry and Education were accepted by authorities.[6] Nevertheless, Poles continued to ask for Polish representation in administration of the area, representing the separate character of the Duchy, keeping the Polish character of schools.[6]
From 1825, the increase in anti-Polish policies became more visible and intense.[6] Prussian political circles demanded an end to the tolerance of Polishness. Among the Poles, two groups emerged, one still hoping for respect of separate status of the Duchy and insisting on working with Prussian authorities, hoping that in time they would grant some freedoms. The other faction still hoped for independence of Poland. As a consequence, many Polish activists were imprisoned.[6] A joint operation of Russian and Prussian secret police managed to discover Polish organizations working in Breslau (Wrocław) and Berlin, whose members were arrested and detained in Prussian jails.[6]
1830–1848
Intensification of anti-Polish policies started from 1830 onwards.
By 1830 the right to use Polish in courts and institutions was no longer respected.[3] While the Poles constituted the majority of population in the area, they held only 4 out of 21 official posts of higher level.[3] From 1832 they could no longer hold higher posts at the local administrative level (Landrat).[3] At the same time the Prussian government and Prussian King pursued Germanisation of administration and judicial system, while local officials enforced Germanisation of educational system and tried to eradicate the economic position of Polish nobility.[3] In Bromberg the mayors were all Germans. In Posen, out of 700 officials, only 30 were Poles.
Flotwell also initiated programs of German colonization and tried to reduce Polish landownership in favor of Germans.[6] In the time period of 1832–1842 the number of Polish holdings was reduced from 1020 to 950 and the German ones increased from 280 to 400.[6] The Jewish minority in the Province was exploited by Prussians to gain support for their policies. The Prussians hoped that by granting Jews rights and abolishing old limitations, they could integrate Jewish population into German society, and gain a counterweight to Polish presence. As a result, many Jews saw in Prussia a free, liberal state and were opposed to the Polish independence movement.[6]
When Frederick William IV ascended to the throne in 1840, certain concessions were again granted.[7] The German colonization was halted, some schools were able to teach Polish again, and promises were made to create Polish departments in universities in Breslau and Berlin, there were also vague promises about creation of university in Posen.[6] This was all that Poles were granted.[6] In reality only the methods changed, while the overall goal of Germanisation remained the same, only this time with lighter methods, and by concessions Prussians hoped to assure identification of Poles with Prussian state and eventual change of their identity.[6] The concession also were connected to freezing of relations between Prussia and Russian Empire, with Prussian politicians hoping that Poles could be used to fight Russia on Prussia's behalf.[6]
At this time the majority of Poles were not yet engaged in political activity. At most only the landowners, the intelligentsia and the upper urban classes possessed a developed national consciousness. The peasantry and the working class had yet to experience their own "Polish national awakening". Through military service and school education, and in the case of "regulated" peasants also in the wake of the benefits wrought by the final emancipation decree introduced in 1823, some segments of these social groups had begun to identify with the Prussian state. However, as German colonization grew in strength and policies against Polish religion and traditions were introduced the local population begun to feel hostility towards Prussia and German presence.[6] Economic factors also began to influence Polish-German relations. Colonization policies in particular created a fear of German competition among Poles. The greatest difference remained the religious segregation. The local Germans displayed rather politically apathy and refrained from creating an organized form of social life. Prior to 1848, the provincial diet remained the only forum of German political activity. In general relations of the local Germans with the Polish population were good.[7]
1871 until the Treaty of Versailles
Within
Germanisation of Poles in Ruhr area
Another form of Germanisation of Poles was the relation between the German state and Polish coal miners in the
Germanisation plans during First World War
During the First World War, the German Empire planned to annex up to 35,000 square kilometers of pre-war Congress Poland and ethnically cleanse between 2 and 3 million Poles and Jews out of these territories to make room for German settlers.[14][15][16][17][18][19]
Reversal of Germanisation after end of German rule over Polish territories
After World War I ended, the Germanisation of those Polish territories which were restored to Poland was largely reversed, although significant German minorities continued to exist.
The American historian of German descent[20] Richard Blanke in his book Orphans of Versailles names several reasons for the exodus of the German population. The author has been criticised by Christian Raitz von Frentz and his book classified by him as part of a series on the subject that have an anti-Polish bias.[21] Polish professor A. Cienciala says that Blanke's views in the book are sympathetic to Germany.[22]
- A number of former settlers from the Prussian Settlement Commission who settled in the area after 1886 in order to Germanise it were in some cases given a month to leave, in other cases they were told to leave at once.[23]
- Poland found itself under threat during the Polish-Bolshevik war,[23]and the German population feared that Bolshevik forces would control Poland. Migration to Germany was a way to avoid conscription and participation in the war.
- State-employed Germans such as judges, prosecutors, teachers and officials left as Poland did not renew their employment contracts. German industrial workers also left due to fear of lower-wage competition. Many Germans became economically dependent on Prussian state aid as it fought the "Polish problem" in its provinces.[23]
- Germans refused to accept living in a Polish state.Lewis Bernstein Namier said: "Some Germans undoubtedly left because they would not live under the dominion of a race which they had previously oppressed and despised."[24]
- Germans feared that the Poles would seek reprisals after over a century of harassment and discrimination by the Prussian and German state against the Polish population.[23]
- Social and linguistic isolation: while the population was mixed, only Poles were required to be bilingual. The Germans usually did not learn Polish. When Polish became the only official language in Polish-majority provinces, their situation became difficult. The Poles shunned Germans which contributed to their isolation.[23]
- Lower standards of living. Poland was a much poorer country than Germany.[23]
- Former Nazi politician and later opponent Hermann Rauschning wrote that 10% of Germans were unwilling to remain in Poland regardless of their treatment, and another 10% were workers from other parts of the German Empire with no roots in the region.[23]
Official encouragement by the Polish state played a secondary role in the exodus.[23] While there were demonstrations and protests and occasional violence against Germans, they were at a local level, and officials were quick to point out that they were a backlash against former discrimination against Poles.[23] There were other demonstrations when Germans showed disloyalty during the Polish-Bolshevik war[23] as the Red Army announced the return to the prewar borders of 1914.[25] As many as 80% of Germans emigrated more or less voluntarily.[23]
Reversal of Germanisation in Poznan
County (German name in brackets)[26] |
ethnic German population (1910) | ethnic German population (1926) | ethnic German population (1934) | decline (absolute numbers) |
decline (percent) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Odolanów (Adelnau) | 17,148 | 10,038 | 9,442 | −7,706 | −44.9 |
Międzychód (Birnbaum) | 16,012 | 4,655 | 4,377 | −11,635 | −72.7 |
Bydgoszcz (Bromberg, town) | 74,292 | 11,016 | 10,021 | −64,271 | −86.5 |
Bydgoszcz (Bromberg, district) | 31,212 | 13,281 | 12,211 | −19,001 | −60.9 |
Czarnków (Czarnikau) | 17,273 | 5,511 | 4,773 | −6,500 | −57.7 |
Gniezno (Gnesen) | 26,275 | 8,616 | 7,876 | −18,399 | −70.0 |
Gostyń (Gostyn) | 6,528 | 2,395 | 2,162 | −4,366 | −66.9 |
Grodzisk Wielkopolski (Grätz) / Nowy Tomyśl (Neutomischel) | 33,244 | 16,576 | 16,555 | −16,689 | −50.2 |
Inowrocław (Hohensalza) | 28,394 | 8,455 | 8,096 | −20,298 | −71.5 |
Jarocin (Jarotschin) / Pleszew (Pleschen) | 15,436 | 4,667 | 4,019 | −11,417 | −74.0 |
Kępno (Kempen) / Ostrzeszów (Schildberg) | 16,631 | 9,310 | 10,889 | −5,742 | −34.5 |
Chodzież (Kolmar) | 34,004 | 14,246 | 12,348 | −21,656 | −63.7 |
Koźmin (Koschmin) / Krotoszyn (Krotoschin) | 21,542 | 6,542 | 5,807 | −15,735 | −73.0 |
Leszno (Lissa) | 31,033 | 9,917 | 8,371 | −22,662 | −73.0 |
Mogilno (Mogilno) / Strzelno (Strelno) | 21,711 | 8,727 | 7,770 | −13,941 | −64.2 |
Oborniki (Obornik) | 22,450 | 9,417 | 8,410 | −14,040 | −62.5 |
Poznań (Posen, town) | 65,321 | 5,980 | 4,387 | −60,934 | −93.3 |
Poznań (Posen, district) | 21,486 | 4,687 | 4,252 | −17,234 | −80.2 |
Rawicz (Rawitsch) | 21,842 | 6,184 | 5,038 | −16,804 | −76.9 |
Szamotuły (Samter) | 17,071 | 5,029 | 4,841 | −12,230 | −71.6 |
Śmigiel (Schmiegel) / Kościan (Kosten) | 11,775 | 3,636 | 3,488 | −8,287 | −70.4 |
Śrem (Schrimm) | 10,017 | 2,802 | 3,574 | −6,443 | −64.3 |
Środa Wielkopolska (Schroda) | 6,201 | 2,269 | 2,029 | −4,172 | −67.3 |
Szubin (Schubin) | 21,035 | 10,193 | 8,879 | −12,156 | −57.8 |
Wyrzysk (Wirsitz) | 34,235 | 13,495 | 12,410 | −21,825 | −63.8 |
Wolsztyn (Wollstein) | 22,236 | 10,369 | 9,313 | −12,923 | −58.1 |
Wągrowiec (Wongrowitz) | 16,309 | 8,401 | 7,143 | −9,166 | −56.2 |
Września (Wreschen) | 7,720 | 2,436 | 2,115 | −6,505 | −72.6 |
Żnin (Znin) | 10,906 | 5,404 | 4,539 | −6,367 | −58.4 |
Poznań Voivodship (total) | 679,339 | 224,254 | 203,135 | −468,204 | −68.9 |
Reversal of Germanisation in Pomerania
County (German name in brackets)[27] |
ethnic German population (1910) | ethnic German population (1926) | ethnic German population (1934) | decline (absolute numbers) |
decline (percent) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kościerzyna (Berent) | 20,804 | 6,884 | 5,974 | −14,830 | −71.3 |
Wąbrzeźno (Briesen) | 24,007 | 7,615 | 7,344 | −16,663 | −69.4 |
Chełmno (Kulm) | 23,345 | 7,905 | 7,673 | −15,672 | −67.1 |
Tczew (Dirschau)/ Gniew (Mewe)/ Świecie (Schwetz) | 70,279 | 20,446 | 17,571 | −52,708 | −75.0 |
Grudziądz (Graudenz, town) | 34,194 | 3,542 | 3,875 | −30,319 | −88.7 |
Grudziądz (Graudenz, district) | 28,698 | 9,317 | 8,190 | −20,508 | −71.5 |
Kartuzy (Karthaus) | 14,170 | 4,800 | 3,927 | −10,243 | −72.3 |
Chojnice (Konitz) | 30,326 | 9,022 | 8,070 | −22,256 | −73.4 |
Lubawa (Löbau) | 12,122 | 2,078 | 1,689 | −10,433 | −86.1 |
Wejherowo (Neustadt)/ Puck (Putzig) | 24,528 | 6,556 | 6,305 | −18,223 | −74,3 |
Starogard Gdański (Pr. Stargard) | 17,165 | 2,909 | 3,418 | −13,747 | −80.1 |
Toruń (Thorn, town) | 30,509 | 2,255 | 2,057 | −28,452 | −93.3 |
Toruń (Thorn, district) | 27,757 | 7,107 | 6,738 | −21,019 | −75.7 |
Tuchola (Tuchel) | 11,268 | 3,170 | 2,861 | −8,407 | −74.6 |
Sępólno Krajeńskie (Zempelburg) | 21,554 | 10,866 | 11,130 | −10,424 | −48.4 |
Pomeranian Voivodship (total) | 421,033 | 117,251 | 107,555 | −313,347 | −74.5 |
See also
- Germanisation in Poland (1939–1945)
- Germanisation of the Province of Posen
- Expulsion of Poles by Germany
- Russification of Poles during the Partitions
Notes
- ^ a b "In fact from Hitler to Hans we find frequent references and Jews as Indians. This, too, was a long standing trope. It can be traced back to Frederick the Great, who likened the 'slovenly Polish trash' in newly' reconquered West Prussia to Iroquois". Localism, Landscape, and the Ambiguities of Place: German-speaking Central Europe, 1860–1930 David Blackbourn, James N. Retallack University of Toronto 2007
- ISBN 0-520-02775-2.
It has been estimated that during his reign 300,000 individuals settled in Prussia. ... While the commission for colonization established in the Bismarck era could in the course of two decades bring no more than 11,957 families to the eastern territories, Frederick settled a total of 57,475. ... It increased the German character of the population in the monarchy's provinces to a very significant degree. ... in West Prussia where he wished to drive out the Polish nobility and bring as many of their large estates as possible into German hands.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Andrzej Chwalba, Historia Polski 1795–1918 Wydawnictwo Literackie 2000 Kraków pages 175–184, 307–312
- ^ Wielka historia Polski t. 4 Polska w czasach walk o niepodległość (1815–1864). Od niewoli do niepodległości (1864–1918) Marian Zagórniak, Józef Buszko 2003 page 186
- ^ Historia 1789–1871 Page 224. Anna Radziwiłł and Wojciech Roszkowski
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae Jerzy Zdrada, Historia Polski 1795–1918 Warsaw Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN 2007; pages 268, 273–291, 359–370
- ^ a b Makowski, Krzysztof (Fall 1999). East European Quarterly (ed.). Poles, Germans And Jews In The Grand Duchy Of Posen in 1848: From Coexistence To Conflict.
- ^ Abrams, p. 24.
- ^ National Identity and Foreign Policy: Nationalism and Leadership in Poland, Russia and Ukraine (Cambridge Russian, Soviet and Post-Soviet Studies) Ilya Prizel page 113,Cambridge University Press 1998
- ^ "Encyklopedia PWN". Archived from the original on 2006-05-22. Retrieved 2006-10-18.
- ISBN 83-7319-993-4.
- ^ "All items for this edition of World News are taken from the Sydney Morning Herald (SMH), January-February 1902". Archived from the original on 2005-12-08. Retrieved 2005-10-31.
- ^ Bade, Weiner, p. 11.
- ^ Truth or conjecture?: German civilian war losses in the East, page 366 Stanisław Schimitzek Zachodnia Agencia Prasowa, 1966
- ^ To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, page 151–152
- ^ Shatterzone of Empires: Coexistence and Violence in the German, Habsburg, Russian, and Ottoman Borderlands by Omer Bartov and Eric D. Weitz page 55 Indiana University Press 2013
- ^ Immanuel Geiss "Tzw. polski pas graniczny 1914-1918". Warszawa 1964
- ^ The Red Prince: The Secret Lives of a Habsburg Archduke By Timothy Snyder "On the annexations and ethnic cleansing, see Geiss, Der Polnische Grenzstreifen"
- ^ Absolute Destruction: Military Culture And The Practices Of War In Imperial Germany Isabel V. Hull page 233
- ^ "Part I: to 1914". Web.ku.edu. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
- ^ A Lesson Forgotten: Minority Protection Under the League of Nations the Case of the German Minority in Poland, 1920-1934 Christian Raitz Von Frentz page 8
- ^ "Anna M". Web.ku.edu. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Orphans of Versailles: The Germans in Western Poland, 1918-1939 pages 32-48 Richard Blanke University Press of Kentucky, 1993
- ^ In the Margin of History, page 45 Lewis Bernstein Namier - (pub. 1969)
- ^ NY Times report
- ISBN 3-447-03997-3.
- ISBN 3-447-03997-3.
References
- Abrams, Lynn (1995). Bismarck and the German Empire, 1871-1918. Routledge. p. 24. ISBN 0-415-07781-8.
- Klaus J. (EDT) Bade, ISBN 0-415-07781-8.
- Zybura, Marek (2004). Niemcy w Polsce. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie. ISBN 83-7384-171-7.