History of Halifax, Nova Scotia
Halifax
Kji'puktuk ( 902 | |
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GNBC Code | CAPHL |
NTS Map | 011D12 |
The community of Halifax, Nova Scotia was created on 1 April 1996, when the City of Dartmouth, the City of Halifax, the Town of Bedford, and the County of Halifax amalgamated and formed the Halifax Regional Municipality. The former City of Halifax was dissolved, and transformed into the Community of Halifax within the municipality.
As of 2021, the community has 156,141 inhabitants within an area of 61.961 km2 (23.923 sq mi).
History
History of Halifax, Nova Scotia |
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18th century
The Halifax area has been territory of the
The community was originally inhabited by the
Despite the
The Town of Halifax was founded by the Kingdom of Great Britain under the direction of the Board of Trade under the command of Governor Edward Cornwallis in 1749.[6] The British founding of Halifax and the influx of British Protestant settlers led to Father Le Loutre's War.[3] During the war, Miꞌkmaq and Acadians raided the capital region 13 times.
The first European settlement in the community was an Acadian community at present-day
Father Le Loutre's War
The establishment of Halifax marked the beginning of
During Father Le Loutre's War, the Miꞌkmaq and Acadians raided in the capital region (Halifax and Dartmouth) twelve times. On September 30, 1749, about forty Miꞌkmaq attacked six men who were in Dartmouth cutting trees. Four of them were killed on the spot, one was taken prisoner and one escaped.[9] Two of the men were scalped and the heads of the others were cut off. The attack was on the sawmill which was under the command of Major Gilman. Six of his men had been sent to cut wood. Four were killed and one was carried off. The other escaped and gave the alarm. A detachment of rangers was sent after the raiding party and cut off the heads of two Miꞌkmaq and scalped one.[10] This raid was the first of eight against Dartmouth.
The result of the raid, on October 2, 1749, Cornwallis offered a bounty on the head of every Miꞌkmaq. He set the amount at the same rate that the Miꞌkmaq received from the French for British scalps. As well, to carry out this task, two companies of rangers raised, one led by Captain Francis Bartelo and the other by Captain William Clapham. These two companies served alongside that of John Gorham's company. The three companies scoured the land around Halifax looking for Miꞌkmaq.[11]
In July 1750, the Miꞌkmaq killed and scalped seven men who were at work in Dartmouth.[12] Four raids were against Halifax Peninsula. The first of these was in July 1750: in the woods on peninsular Halifax, the Miꞌkmaq scalped Cornwallis' gardener, his son, and four others. They buried the son, left the gardener's body exposed, and carried off the other four bodies.[12]
In August 1750, 353 people arrived on Alderney and began the town of Dartmouth. The town was laid out in the autumn of that year.[13] The following month, on September 30, 1750, Dartmouth was attacked again by the Miꞌkmaq and five more residents were killed.[14]
In October 1750 a group of about eight men went out "to take their diversion; and as they were fowling, they were attacked by the Indians, who took the whole prisoners; scalped ... [one] with a large knife, which they wear for that purpose, and threw him into the sea ..."[15] The next year, on March 26, 1751, the Miꞌkmaq attacked again, killing fifteen settlers and wounding seven, three of which would later die of their wounds. They took six captives, and the regulars who pursued the Miꞌkmaq fell into an ambush in which they lost a sergeant killed.[16] Two days later, on March 28, 1751, Miꞌkmaq abducted another three settlers.[16]
Dartmouth Massacre
The worst of these raids was the Dartmouth Massacre (1751). Three months after the previous raid, on May 13, 1751, Broussard led sixty Miꞌkmaq and Acadians to attack Dartmouth again, in what would be known as the "Dartmouth Massacre".[17] Broussard and the others killed twenty settlers - mutilating men, women, children and babies, and took more prisoners.[18] A sergeant was also killed and his body mutilated. They destroyed the buildings. The British returned to Halifax with the scalp of one Miꞌkmaw warrior, however, they reported that they killed six Miꞌkmaw warriors.[19]
In 1751, there were two attacks on blockhouses surrounding Halifax. Miꞌkmaq attacked the North Blockhouse (located at the north end of Joseph Howe Drive) and killed the men on guard. They also attacked near the South Blockhouse (located at the south end of Joseph Howe Drive), at a sawmill on a stream flowing out of Chocolate Lake. They killed two men.[20] (Map of Halifax Blockhouses | Map 2)
In 1753, when Lawrence became governor, the Miꞌkmaq attacked again upon the sawmills near the South Blockhouse on the Northwest Arm, where they killed three British. The Miꞌkmaq made three attempts to retrieve the bodies for their scalps.[21]
Prominent Halifax business person Michael Francklin was captured by a Miꞌkmaw raiding party in 1754 and held captive for three months.[22]
French and Indian War
The town proved its worth as a military base in the French and Indian War (the North American Theatre of the Seven Years' War) as a counter to the French fortress Louisbourg in Cape Breton. Halifax provided the base for the Siege of Louisbourg (1758) and operated as a major naval base for the remainder of the war. On Georges Island (Nova Scotia) in the Halifax harbour, Acadians from the expulsion were imprisoned.
On April 2, 1756, Miꞌkmaq received payment from the Governor of Quebec for twelve British scalps taken at Halifax.[23] Acadian Pierre Gautier, son of Joseph-Nicolas Gautier, led Miꞌkmaw warriors from Louisbourg on three raids against Halifax in 1757. In each raid, Gautier took prisoners or scalps or both. The last raid happened in September and Gautier went with four Miꞌkmaq and killed and scalped two British men at the foot of Citadel Hill. (Pierre went on to participate in the Battle of Restigouche.)[24]
By June 1757, the settlers at Lawrencetown had to be withdrawn completely from the settlement of
In nearby Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, in the spring of 1759, there was another Miꞌkmaq attack on Eastern Battery, in which five soldiers were killed.[29] In July 1759, Miꞌkmaq and Acadians killed five British in Dartmouth, opposite McNabb's Island.[30]
After the French conquered St. John's, Newfoundland in June 1762, the success galvanized both the Acadians and Natives. They began gathering in large numbers at various points throughout the province and behaving in a confident and, according to the British, "insolent fashion". Officials were especially alarmed when Natives concentrated close to the two principal towns in the province, Halifax and Lunenburg, where there were also large groups of Acadians. The government organized an expulsion of 1,300 people, shipping them to Boston. The government of Massachusetts refused the Acadians permission to land and sent them back to Halifax.[31]
The most famous event to take place at the
A permanent navy base, the Halifax Naval Yard was established in 1759. For much of this period in the early 18th century, Nova Scotia was considered a frontier posting for the British military, given the proximity to the border with French territory and potential for conflict; the local environment was also very inhospitable and many early settlers were ill-suited for the colony's wilderness on the shores of Halifax Harbour. The original settlers, who were often discharged soldiers and sailors, left the colony for established cities such as New York and Boston or the lush plantations of the Virginias and Carolinas. However, the new city did attract New England merchants exploiting the nearby fisheries and English merchants such as Joshua Maugher who profited greatly from both British military contracts and smuggling with the French at Louisbourg. The military threat to Nova Scotia was removed following British victory over France in the Seven Years' War.
With the addition of remaining territories of the colony of Acadia, the enlarged British colony of Nova Scotia was mostly depopulated, following the
Lawrencetown was raided numerous times during the war and eventually had to be abandoned as a result (1756). For many decades Dartmouth remained largely rural, lacking direct transportation links to the growing military and commercial presence in Halifax, except for a dedicated ferry service. The former Halifax County was one of the five original counties of Nova Scotia created by an Order in Council in 1759.
Headquarters of the North American Station
Halifax was the headquarters for the British
Burying the Hatchet Ceremony
After agreeing to several peace treaties, the seventy-five year period of war ended with the
Halifax's fortunes waxed and waned with the military needs of the
The American Revolution
The American Revolutionary War was not at first uppermost in the minds of most residents of Halifax. The government did not have enough money to pay for oil for the Sambro lighthouse. The militia was unable to maintain a guard, and was disbanded.[when?] The Sugar Act, or American Revenue Act, of April 1764 was the first from the Parliament at Westminster to explicitly state that its purpose was not merely to regulate trade but to raise revenue, and, toward this end, the Act established a vice admiralty court in Halifax for the purpose of cracking down on alleged smugglers evading customs. Provisions were so scarce during the winter of 1775 that Quebec had to send flour to feed the town. While Halifax was remote from the troubles in the rest of the American colonies, martial law was declared in November 1775 to combat lawlessness.
On March 30, 1776, General William Howe arrived, having been driven from Boston by rebel forces. He brought with him 200 officers, 3000 men, and over 4,000 loyalist refugees, and demanded housing and provisions for all. This was merely the beginning of Halifax's role in the war. Throughout the conflict, and for a considerable time afterwards, thousands more refugees, often "in a destitute and helpless condition"[38] had arrived in Halifax or other ports in Nova Scotia. This would peak with the evacuation of New York, and continue until well after the formal conclusion of war in 1783. At the instigation of the newly arrived Loyalists who desired greater local control, Britain subdivided Nova Scotia in 1784 with the creation of the colonies of New Brunswick and Cape Breton Island; this had the effect of considerably diluting Halifax's presence over the region.
During the American Revolution, Halifax became the staging point of many attacks on rebel-controlled areas in the Thirteen Colonies, and was the city to which British forces from Boston and New York were sent after the over-running of those cities. After the War, tens of thousands of United Empire Loyalists from the American colonies flooded Halifax, and many of their descendants still reside in the city today.
Dartmouth continued to develop slowly. In 1785, at the end of the American Revolution, a group of Quakers from Nantucket arrived in Dartmouth to set up a whaling trade. They built homes, a Quaker meeting house, a wharf for their vessels and a factory to produce spermaceti candles and other products made from whale oil and carcasses. It was a profitable venture and the Quakers employed many local residents, but within ten years, around 1795, the whalers moved their operation to Wales. Only one Quaker residence remains in Dartmouth and is believed to be the oldest structure in Dartmouth. Other families soon arrived in Dartmouth, among them was the Hartshorne family. They were Loyalists who arrived in 1785, and received a grant that included land bordering present-day Portland, King and Wentworth Streets. Woodlawn was once part of the land purchased by a Loyalist, named Ebenezer Allen who became a prominent Dartmouth businessman. In 1786, he donated land near his estate to be used as a cemetery. Many early settlers are interred in the Woodlawn cemetery including the remains of the "Babes in the Woods," two sisters who wandered into the forest and perished.
Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn
Not until after suffering a fall from his horse in late 1798 was he allowed to return to England.
19th century
By the early 19th century, Dartmouth consisted of about twenty-five families. Within twenty years, there were sixty houses, a church, gristmill, shipyards, sawmill, two inns and a bakery located near the harbour.
Napoleonic Wars
Halifax was now the bastion of British strength on the East Coast of North America. Local merchants also took advantage of the exclusion of American trade to the British colonies in the Caribbean, beginning a long trade relationship with the West Indies. However, the most significant growth began with the beginning of what would become known as the Napoleonic Wars. Military spending and the opportunities of wartime shipping and trading stimulated growth led by local merchants such as Charles Ramage Prescott and Enos Collins.
By 1796,
Halifax Impressment Riot
The Royal Navy's manning problems in Nova Scotia peaked in 1805. Warships were short-handed from high desertion rates, and naval captains were handicapped in filling those vacancies by provincial impressment regulations. Desperate for sailors, the Royal Navy pressed them all over the North Atlantic region in 1805, from Halifax and Charlottetown to Saint John and Quebec City. In early May, Vice Admiral Andrew Mitchell sent press gangs from several warships into downtown Halifax. They conscripted men first and asked questions later, rounding up dozens of potential recruits.[45]
The breaking point came in October 1805, when Vice Admiral Mitchell allowed press gangs from HMS Cleopatra to storm the streets of Halifax armed with bayonets, sparking a major riot in which one man was killed and several others were injured. Wentworth lashed out at the admiral for sparking urban unrest and breaking provincial impressment laws, and his government exploited this violent episode to put even tighter restrictions of recruiting in Nova Scotia.[46]
Stemming from impressment disturbances, civil-naval relations deteriorated in Nova Scotia from 1805 to the War of 1812. HMS Whiting was in Liverpool for only about a week, but it terrified the small town the entire time and naval impressment remained a serious threat to sailors along the South Shore. After leaving Liverpool, Whiting terrorized Shelburne by pressing inhabitants, breaking into homes, and forcing more than a dozen families to live in the forest to avoid further harassment.[47]
War of 1812
Though the Duke left in 1800, the city's prosperity continued to grow throughout the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812. While the Royal Navy squadron based in Halifax was small at the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars, it grew to a large size by the War of 1812 and ensured that Halifax was never attacked. The Naval Yard in Halifax expanded to become a major base for the Royal Navy and while its main task was supply and refit, it also built several smaller warships including the namesake HMS Halifax in 1806.[48]
Capture of U.S.S. Chesapeake
Several notable naval engagements occurred off the Halifax station. Most dramatic was the victory of the Halifax-based British
Shannon, commanded by Halifax's own
An invasion force sent from Halifax attacked
Early in the war, an expedition left Halifax under the Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia,
Black refugees
The next major migration of blacks into Nova Scotia occurred between 1813 and 1815.
19th century prosperity
In the peace after 1815, the city at first suffered an economic malaise for a few years, aggravated by the move of the Royal Naval yard to
Throughout the nineteenth century, there were numerous businesses that were developed in HRM that became of national and international importance: The Starr Manufacturing Company, the Cunard Line, Alexander Keith's Brewery, Morse's Tea Company, among others. A modern water works system was built in 1844 to replace the city's original array of private and public wells. The Halifax Water Company, a private firm under contract to the City of Halifax built a gravity-fed main to deliver water to fire hydrants, public fountains and private customers in downtown Halifax from the Chain Lakes and Long Lake system near the city. It went into full operation in 1848 and was purchased by the City from the private company in 1861. [56]
Having played a key role to maintain and expand British power in North America and elsewhere during the 18th century, Halifax played less dramatic roles in the many decades of peace during the 19th Century. However, as one of the most important British overseas bases, the harbour's defences were successively refortified with the latest artillery defences throughout the century to provide a secure base for British Empire forces. Nova Scotians and Maritimers were recruited through Halifax for the Crimean War. The city boomed during the American Civil War, mostly by supplying the wartime economy of the North but also by offering refuge and supplies to Confederate blockade runners. The port also saw Canada's first overseas military deployment as a nation to aid the British Empire during the Second Boer War.
Halifax was founded below a
. In its early years, Citadel Hill was used as a command and observation post, before changes in artillery that could range out into the harbour.Royal Acadian School
In 1814, Walter Bromley opened the Royal Acadian School, which included many black children and adults. Bromley taught on the weekends because they were employed during the week.[57] Some of the black students entered into business in Halifax while others were hired as servants.[58]
New Horizons Baptist Church
Preston and others went on to establish a network of socially active Black baptist churches throughout Nova Scotia, with the Halifax church being referred to as the "Mother Church."[59] Five of these churches were established in Halifax: Preston (1842), Beechville (1844), Hammonds Plains (1845), and another in Africville (1849) and Dartmouth.[61] From meetings held at the church, they also established the African Friendly Society, the African Abolition Society, and the African United Baptist Association.
The church remained the centre of social activism throughout the 20th Century. Reverends at the church included William A. White (1919-1936) and William Pearly Oliver (1937-1962).
City status
After a protracted struggle between residents and the
Responsible government
The cause of self-government for the city of Halifax began the political career of Joseph Howe and would subsequently lead to this form of accountability being brought to colonial affairs for the colony of Nova Scotia. Howe was later considered a great Nova Scotian leader, and the father of responsible government in British North America. After election to the House of Assembly as leader of the Liberal party, one of his first acts was the incorporation of the City of Halifax in 1842, followed by the direct election of civic politicians by Haligonians.
Halifax became a hotbed of political activism as the winds of responsible government swept British North America during the 1840s, following the rebellions against oligarchies in the colonies of Upper and Lower Canada. The first instance of responsible government in the British Empire was achieved by the colony of Nova Scotia in January–February 1848 through the efforts of Howe. The leaders of the fight for responsible or self-government later took up the Anti-Confederation fight, the movement that from 1868 to 1875 tried to take Nova Scotia out of Confederation.
During the 1850s, Howe was a heavy promoter of
Crimean War
Citizens of the former City of Halifax fought in the
Located at the mouth of the Sackville River, Bedford was originally known by several names, such as Fort Sackville, Ten Mile House, and Sunnyside. It used the name Bedford Basin (named after the Bedford Basin) from 1856 to 1902, when it was shortened to just Bedford, taking its name from the Duke of Bedford who was the Secretary of State in 1749.
Dartmouth saw a surge of local industries in the 1850s. The Dartmouth Marine Slips opened in 1858 just in time to benefit from the surge in shipping during the American Civil War. Nearby, the Starr Manufacturing Company was built near the Shubenacadie Canal in the late 1850s. The factory employed over 150 workers and manufactured ice skates, cut nails, vault doors, iron bridge work and other heavy iron products. The Mott's candy and soap factory, employing 100, opened at Hazelhurst (near present-day Hazelhurst and Newcastle Streets). The Symonds Foundry employed a further 50 to 100 people. The Stairs Ropeworks, later Consumer Cordage, was built in the North End of Dartmouth on Wyse Road, constructing an industrial suburb for its 300 workers and surviving the Halifax Explosion. The ropeworks survived as a pub until 2012 when it was demolished by Sobeys to construct a supermarket. As the population grew, more houses were erected and new businesses established. Subdivisions such as Woodlawn, Woodside and Westphal developed on the outskirts of the town.
Military schools
Long before the Royal Military College of Canada was established in 1876, there were proposals for military colleges in Canada. At a pre-Confederation of Canada military school in Halifax, adult male students drilled and attended lectures on drill commands, military records, court-martial, the Articles of War, discipline and punishments, promotion of non-commissioned officers, military accounts and pay and messing. After Confederation, a military school was opened in Halifax to conduct officer training for cavalry, infantry and artillery. In 1870–71, Canadian militia staff replaced the British regulars who were recalled from overseas station.[63]
Schools for the Deaf and the Blind established
The first school for the
American Civil War
The
Halifax has been for more than one year, and yet is, a naval station for vessels which, running the blockade, furnish supplies and munitions of war to our enemy, and it has been made a rendezvous for those piratical cruisers which come out from Liverpool and Glasgow, to destroy our commerce on the high seas, and even to carry war into the ports of the United States. Halifax is a postal and despatch station in the correspondence between the rebels at Richmond and their emissaries in Europe. Halifax merchants are known to have surreptitiously imported provisions, arms, and ammunition from our seaports, and then transshipped them to the rebels. The governor of Nova Scotia has been neutral, just, and friendly; so were the judges of the province who presided on the trial of the Chesapeake. But then it is understood that, on the other hand, merchant shippers of Halifax, and many of the people of Halifax, are willing agents and abettors of the enemies of the United States, and their hostility has proved not merely offensive but deeply injurious.[64]
The Tallahassee Escape
Just before arriving in Halifax, CSS Tallahassee made a 19-day raid off the Atlantic coast. Tallahassee destroyed 26 vessels and captured 7 others that were bonded or released. Under the command of John Taylor Wood sailed into Halifax Harbour for supplies, coal and to make repairs to her mainmast. Wood began loading coal at Woodside, on the Dartmouth shore. Two Union Navy ships were closing in on Tallahassee, USS Nansemont and USS Huron. While Wood was offered an escort out of the harbour he instead slipped out of the harbour under the cover of night by going through the seldom used Eastern Passage between McNab's Island and the Dartmouth Shore. The channel was narrow and crooked with a shallow tide so Wood hired the local pilot Jock Flemming. Tallahassee left the Woodside wharf at night in darkness. All the lights were out, but the residents on the Eastern Passage mainland could see the dark hull moving through the water, successfully evading capture.[65]
Confederation
After the American Civil War, the five colonies which made up British North America, Ontario, Quebec, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, held meetings to consider uniting into a single country. This was due to a threat of annexation and invasion from the United States. Canadian Confederation became a reality in 1867, but received much resistance from the merchant classes of Halifax, and from many prominent Halifax politicians due to the fact that both Halifax and Nova Scotia were at the time very wealthy, held trading ties with Boston and New York which would be damaged, and did not see the need for the colony to give up its comparative independence. After confederation Halifax retained its British military garrison until British troops were replaced by the Canadian army in 1906. The British Royal Navy remained until 1910 when the newly created Royal Canadian Navy took over the Naval Dockyard.
The city's cultural roots deepened as its economy matured. The Victorian College of Art was founded in 1887 (later to become the
Post Confederation
After Confederation, boosters of Halifax expected federal help to make the city's natural harbor Canada's official winter port and a gateway for trade with Europe. Halifax's advantages included its location just off the Great Circle route made it the closest to Europe of any mainland North American port. But the new Intercolonial Railway (ICR) took an indirect, northerly route for military and political reasons. Although the ICR did built a large new station and some port facilities known as the Deep Water Terminals in Halifax's North End, the national government made little effort to promote Halifax as Canada's winter port. Ignoring appeals to nationalism and the ICR's own attempts to promote traffic to Halifax, most Canadian exporters sent their wares by train though Boston or Portland. Port promoters fought an uphill battle for decades to finance the large-scale port facilities that Halifax needed. It took the First World War to at last boost Halifax's harbor into prominence on the North Atlantic.[66]
Industrialization
Halifax business leaders attempted to diversity with manufacturing under Canada's National Policy creating factories such as the Acadia Sugar Refinery, the Nova Scotia Cotton Manufacturing Company, the Halifax Graving Dock and the Silliker Car Works. However, this embrace with industrialization produced only modest results as most Halifax manufacturers found it hard to compete with larger firms in Ontario and Quebec.
Transportation links to Dartmouth
In 1873 Dartmouth was incorporated as a
Salvation Army
En route to England, George Scott Railton stopped at the port of Halifax, Nova Scotia and held the first Salvation Army meeting in Canada on March 24, 1881. He was so engaged in his sermon he missed his boat to England. He preached in Halifax for the following week in various Halifax churches and a year later the Salvation Army was officially established in Canada.
Anna Leonowens
North-West Rebellion
Prior to Nova Scotia's involvement in the North-West Rebellion, Canada's "first war", the province remained hostile to Canada in the aftermath of how the colony was forced into Canada. The celebration that followed the Halifax Provisional Battalion's return from the conflict by train across the county ignited a national patriotism in Nova Scotia. Prime Minister Robert Borden, stated that "up to this time Nova Scotia hardly regarded itself as included in the Canadian Confederation... The rebellion evoked a new spirit... The Riel Rebellion did more to unite Nova Scotia with the rest of Canada than any event that had occurred since Confederation." Similarly, in 1907 Governor General Earl Grey declared, "This Battalion... went out Nova Scotians, they returned Canadians." The wrought iron gates at the Halifax Public Gardens were made in the Battalion's honour.[69]
20th century
Second Boer War
During the Second Boer War from 1899 to 1902, the First Contingent was composed of seven companies from across Canada. The Nova Scotia Company (H) consisted of 125 men. (The total First Contingent was a total force of 1,019. Eventually over 8,600 Canadians served.) The mobilization of the Contingent took place at Quebec. On October 30, 1899, the ship Sardinian sailed the troops for four weeks to Cape Town. The Boer War marked the first occasion in which large contingents of Nova Scotian troops served abroad (individual Nova Scotians had served in the Crimean War).
The Battle of Paardeberg in February 1900 represented the second time Canadian soldiers saw battle abroad (the first being the Canadian involvement in the Nile Expedition).[70] Canadians also saw action at the Battle of Faber's Put on May 30, 1900.[71] On November 7, 1900, the Royal Canadian Dragoons engaged the Boers in the Battle of Leliefontein, where they saved British guns from capture during a retreat from the banks of the Komati River.[72] Approximately 267 Canadians died in the war. 89 men were killed in action, 135 died of disease, and the remainder died of accident or injury. 252 were wounded.
Halifax and Southwestern Railway
In 1901,
The CNR, along with several other railway lines in Canada, entered financial difficulties during the First World War. Encumbered by construction debts and low traffic, the CNoR was bankrupt and requested financial aid from the federal government in 1918. On September 6, 1918, CNoR was
Titanic disaster
In April 1912, Halifax became the centre of recovery operations following the sinking of RMS Titanic. The city was the closest to the disaster site with direct rail and steamship connections. Two Halifax-based ships, CS Mackay-Bennett and CS Minia, were sent to recover the bodies still floating in the North Atlantic. Mackay-Bennett was the first ship to reach the disaster area and retrieved most of the bodies that were recovered.
Only 333 bodies of Titanic victims were recovered, one in five of the over 1,500 victims. (Titanic carried 2,224 passengers and crew.) A large temporary
World War I
An important port for the Caribbean-Canada-United Kingdom shipping triangle during the 19th century, Halifax's strategic harbour was also an integral part of Allied war efforts during both world wars.
It was in
Halifax Explosion
The war was seen as a blessing for the city's economy, but in 1917 a French
The following day a blizzard hit the city, hindering recovery efforts. Immediate help rushed in from the rest of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and
The explosion and the rebuilding which followed had important impacts on the city: reshaping the layout of North End neighbourhoods; creating a progressive housing development known as the Hydrostone; and hastening the move of railways to the South End of the city.
Interwar period
The city's economy slumped after the war, although reconstruction from the Halifax Explosion brought new housing and infrastructure as well as the establishment of the
War Plan Red, a military strategy developed by the United States Army during the mid-1920s and officially withdrawn in 1939, involved an occupation of Halifax by US forces following a poison gas first strike, to deny the British a major naval base and cut links between Britain and Canada.
World War II
Halifax played an even bigger role in the Allied naval war effort of
Bedford Magazine explosion
During World War II, Dartmouth and Halifax were engaged in supporting Canada's war effort in Europe. On July 18, 1945, at the end of World War II, a fire broke out at the magazine jetty on the Bedford Basin, north of Dartmouth. The fire began on a sunken barge and quickly spread to the dock. A violent series of large explosions ensued as stored ammunition exploded. The barge responsible for starting the explosion presently lies on the seabed near the eastern shoreline adjacent to the Magazine Dock.[80][81]
Halifax Riot
The
Postwar years
After World War II, Halifax did not experience the postwar economic malaise it had so often experienced after previous wars. This was partially due to the
The late 1960s was a period of significant change and expansion of the city when surrounding areas of Halifax County were amalgamated into Halifax:
A desire to promote development by Halifax downtown business interests proposed demolishing the Halifax Citadel and leveling Citadel Hill to provide parking and encourage development in the late 1940s.[82] However, recognition of the fort's historical significance and tourism potential led to the fort's preservation in 1956 and gradual restoration by Parks Canada as a city landmark and top tourism draw.[83]
Urban renewal plans in the 1960s and 1970s resulted in the loss of much of its heritage architecture and community fabric in large downtown developments such as the Scotia Square mall and office towers. However, a citizens protest movement limited further destructive plans such as a waterfront freeway called Harbour Drive, which opened the way for a popular and successful revitalized waterfront. A remainder of the cancelled freeway plan is the Cogswell Interchange.
Selective height limits were also achieved to protect the views from Citadel Hill. However, municipal heritage protection remained weak with only pockets of heritage buildings surviving in the downtown and constant pressure from developers for further demolition. Selective height restrictions were adopted to protect views from Citadel Hill which triggered battles over proposed developments that would fill vacant lots or add height to existing historical structures.
Another casualty during the 1960s and 1970s period of expansion and urban renewal was the Black community of Africville which was declared a slum, demolished and its residents displaced to clear land for industrial use as well as for the A. Murray MacKay Bridge. The repercussions continue to this day and a 2001 United Nations report has called for reparations be paid to the community's former residents.
In 1980, Bedford incorporated as a separate municipality (a town).
Restrictions on development were relaxed somewhat during the 1990s, resulting in some suburban sprawl off the peninsula. Today the community of Halifax is more compact than most Canadian urban areas although expanses of suburban growth have occurred in neighbouring Dartmouth, Bedford and Sackville. One development in the late 1990s was the Bayers Lake Business Park, where warehouse style retailers were permitted to build in a suburban industrial park west of Rockingham. This has become an important yet controversial centre of commerce for the city and the province as it used public infrastructure to subsidise multi-national retail chains and draw business from local downtown business. Much of this subsidy was due to competition between Halifax, Bedford and Dartmouth to host these giant retail chains and this controversy helped lead the province to force amalgamation as a way to end wasteful municipal rivalries. In the past few years, urban housing sprawl has even reached these industrial/retail parks as new blasting techniques permitted construction on the granite wilderness around the city. What was once a business park surrounded by forest and a highway on one side has become a large suburb with numerous new apartment buildings and condominiums. Some of this growth has been spurred by offshore oil and natural gas economic activity but much has been due to a population shift from rural Nova Scotian communities to the Halifax urban area. The new amalgamated city has attempted to manage this growth with a new master development plan.
1996 amalgamation and Community status
The provincial government had sought to reduce the number of municipal governments in the province as a cost-saving measure.[citation needed] In 1992, a task force was created to pursue this cutback.
In 1995, the Act to Incorporate the Halifax Regional Municipality received
Although the amalgamation dissolved the aforementioned cities, suburbs, towns, and villages, residents of the former-places commonly refer to their locality their respective community (use of the colloquial term city is used for residents of Dartmouth-and-Halifax), and not as resident of the Halifax Regional Municipality. (E.g. if a person asks where they live in Nova Scotia, the person will say they are from Dartmouth--not from the Halifax Regional Municipality).
21st century
During the mid-to-late 1990s, HRM developed a strong national and international following to its music scene, particularly the alternative genre. Musical acts from HRM include such notable groups as: Sloan, The Nellis Complex, Thrush Hermit, Christina Clark, and Sarah McLachlan.
Although discussions had been underway for decades in the former cities of Halifax and Dartmouth, a deal was finally signed in 2003 that saw the construction of several sewage treatment plants for the core urban area, as well as an extensive trunk collector system to link outfalls to each plant. For the first time since settlement came to the area, human sewage will be treated before it is discharged into the Atlantic Ocean; estimated start-up is for 2007.
Hurricane Juan
On September 29, 2003, HRM was hit by Hurricane Juan which made landfall west of the urban core. Juan was the most powerful hurricane to directly hit the Halifax-Dartmouth metropolitan area since 1893. The storm caused a serious disruption throughout the central and eastern part of the municipality during the first week of October. Although some areas of the urban core only lost electricity for a brief period, outlying rural regions in the eastern part of HRM were without electricity for up to two weeks. Millions of trees in HRM were damaged or destroyed in the dense forests along the Eastern Shore.
On January 13, 2008 the government of Nova Scotia proclaimed the "Halifax Regional Municipality Charter Act" giving the municipality more powers to address the specific needs of HRM.[84]
Africville Apology
On February 24, 2010, Halifax Mayor Peter J. Kelly made the Africville Apology, apologizing for the eviction of those from Africville as part of a $4.5-million compensation deal. The city restored the name Africville to Seaview Park at the annual Africville Family Reunion on July 29, 2011.[85] The Seaview African United Baptist Church, demolished in 1969, was rebuilt in the summer of 2011 to serve as a church and interpretation centre. The nearly complete church was ceremonially opened on September 25, 2011.[86]
Geography
The community's total landmass is 6,196.1 hectares (61.961 km2). It accounts for less than 1.2% of the municipal landmass, and less than 27% of the urban landmass.
The community is located in the Atlantic Maritime ecozone, the Appalachian land-form region, and the wet-climate soil-region. Furthermore, Halifax is within the Atlantic Canada climate-region, and the Mixwood-forest vegetation-region.
Historical political geography
The original settlements of Halifax occupied a small stretch of land inside a palisade at the foot of Citadel Hill on the Halifax Peninsula, a sub-peninsula of the much larger Chebucto Peninsula that extends into Halifax Harbour. Over time, Halifax grew to incorporate all of the north, south, and west ends of the peninsula with a central business district concentrated in the southeastern end along the Narrows.
In 1969, the City of Halifax grew significantly. The City annexed several communities from the surrounding
On 1 April 1996, the City of Dartmouth, City of Halifax, County of Halifax, and the Town of Bedford amalgamated and formed the Halifax Regional Municipality. Subsequently, the City of Halifax dissolved, and was reestablished as the Community of Halifax. The new community is coterminous with the former City.
The streets on the Halifax peninsula are a grid and numbered sequentially making it easy to get around. Numbered from south-to-north House Numbers start at 1 and reach 1000 block at Inglis Street, 2000 block at Quinpool Road, 3000 block at Almon Street and 4000 block at Duffus Street. Moving from east-to-west 5000 block is at Lower Water Street, 6000 block at Robie Street. One of the longest streets on the peninsula is Robie Street. When looking for 2010 Robie Street look one block north of Quinpool Road across from the Halifax Commons, move a block to the west and you will find 2010 Windsor Street; walk a few more blocks west and Quinpool will take you to 2010 Oxford Street. If you are moving west on Almon Street you will find 5200 Almon at the Göttingen Street intersection, 6000 Almon at Robie, 7000 Almon at Connaught Avenue, Chebucto Road numbers to 8000 at Joseph Howe Drive. The numbering system is consistent to the grid even when the streets are not perfectly parallel or perpendicular to one another on the map.
Neighbourhoods
- Colloquial neighbourhood names
- North End Halifax, north of North Street to Seaview Park
- West End, Halifax, West of Windsor Street, between North and South Streets to Joseph Howe Drive
- Quinpool District, Shopping and Dining area
- South End Halifax, South of South Street to Point Pleasant Park
- Spring Garden, shopping and dining area
- Central Halifax, the original city, between North Street and South Street, from Lower-Water Street to Windsor Street
- Official neighbourhood names
(including former villages, residential neighbourhoods; and modern names of housing developments and industrial parks)
- Armdale, village neighbourhood
- Bayer's Lake
- Beechwood Park
- Boulderwood
- Bridgeview
- Clayton Park
- Convoy Place
- Cowie Hill
- Fairmount
- Fairview, village neighbourhood
- Fernleigh
- Green Acres
- Hydrostonepost Halifax Explosion re-development neighbourhood
- Jollimore, village neighbourhood
- Kent Park
- Leiblin Park
- Melville Cove
- Mulgrave Park, housing development in Mulgrave district
- Rockingham, village neighbourhood
- Sherwood Heights
- Spryfield, village neighbourhood
- Thornhill
- Wedgewood
- Westmount Subdivision
- Historic neighbourhood names
- Africville, now Seaview Park
- Richmond, now The North End east of Novalea Drive facing the harbour.
- Mulgrave (Halifax), north of Duffus Street, east of Göttingen Street in the North End.
- Needham (Halifax), now The Hydrostone and much of the North End west of Novalea Drive.
- Dutch Village, The West End west of Windsor Street
- Fort Massey, East of Robie Street from Duke Street to South Street
Richmond, Needham and Mulgrave were voting district names. Historically, these working-class Catholic neighbourhoods used their parish names: Saint Stephen's, Saint Joeseph's, Saint Patrick's. Today they are the integrated and prosperous North End; the neighbourhood names are no longer in common use and the parish boundaries no longer exist.
Demographics
Currently, the Community's is at its highest ever population. Within its relatively small landmass, there are 156,141 inhabitants as of 2021. Even if it was still an independent city with its former boundaries, it would be the largest city in Atlantic Canada.
From 2016 to 2021, the community's population increased by 19,621 people; from 136,520 people to 156,141 people. The increase represented very-strong growth of higher-than 14% over a time-period of five-years.
The community of Halifax consists of census tracts 2050001.00 to 2050027.00.
Census Tract | Land area (km2) | Population ( 2021)[87]
|
Population ( 2016)[88]
|
Population Density (people per km2) ( 2021 )
|
Population Change (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2050001.00 | 5.703 | 4,123 | 3,868 | 722 | 6.5 |
2050002.00 | 11.518 | 8,358 | 6,194 | 725 | 34.9 |
2050003.00 | 2.365 | 2,885 | 2,955 | 1,219 | 2.4 |
2050004.01 | 0.481 | 4,045 | 3,466 | 8,402 | 16.7 |
2050004.02 | 0.482 | 5,466 | 4,771 | 11,340 | 14.6 |
2050005.00 | 0.769 | 1,813 | 1,808 | 2,358 | 0.3 |
2050006.00 | 1.054 | 3,553 | 3,129 | 3,371 | 13.6 |
2050007.00 | 1.16 | 1,947 | 1,859 | 1,677 | 4.7 |
2050008.00 | 0.504 | 5,203 | 2,778 | 10,325 | 87.3 |
2050009.00 | 0.635 | 2,875 | 2,357 | 4,528 | 22 |
2050010.00 | 0.834 | 6,019 | 5,036 | 7,213 | 19.5 |
2050011.00 | 0.808 | 6,013 | 5,631 | 7,446 | 6.8 |
2050012.00 | 0.518 | 2,901 | 2,482 | 5,598 | 16.9 |
2050013.00 | 0.805 | 2,630 | 2,561 | 3,267 | 2.7 |
2050014.00 | 1.838 | 4,390 | 4,248 | 2,388 | 3.3 |
2050015.00 | 2.042 | 5,389 | 4,829 | 2,639 | 15.9 |
2050016.00 | 2.563 | 4,021 | 3,766 | 1,568 | 6.7 |
2050017.00 | 2.912 | 2,999 | 2,914 | 1,029 | 2.9 |
2050018.00 | 1.397 | 3,758 | 3,544 | 2,690 | 6 |
2050019.00 | 0.891 | 5,126 | 5,062 | 5,755 | 1.3 |
2050020.00 | 0.999 | 3,602 | 2,562 | 3,607 | 40.6 |
2050021.00 | 0.877 | 3,544 | 3,314 | 4,041 | 6.9 |
2050022.00 | 2.833 | 5,581 | 5,301 | 1,969 | 5.3 |
2050023.00 | 1.537 | 5,208 | 4,594 | 3,388 | 13.4 |
2050024.00 | 2.181 | 8,618 | 7,375 | 3,951 | 16.8 |
2050025.01 | 1.05 | 5,201 | 4,726 | 4,953 | 10 |
2050025.02 | 1.913 | 5,515 | 4,863 | 2,882 | 13.4 |
2050025.04 | 0.911 | 4,818 | 4,685 | 5,288 | 2.8 |
2050025.05 | 1.556 | 3,746 | 3,547 | 2,407 | 5.6 |
2050026.02 | 1.509 | 4,855 | 3,409 | 3,217 | 42.4 |
2050026.03 | 1.393 | 3,348 | 3,358 | 2,403 | 0.3 |
2050026.04 | 0.654 | 4,346 | 4,199 | 6,645 | 3.5 |
2050026.05 | 0.771 | 3,866 | 3,967 | 5,014 | 2.5 |
2050027.00 | 4.498 | 10,379 | 7,362 | 2,307 | 40.9 |
Community | 61.961 | 156,141 | 136,520 | 2,519 | 14.3 |
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1749 | 2,576 | — |
1755 | 1,747 | −32.2% |
1762 | 2,500 | +43.1% |
1767 | 3,695 | +47.8% |
1790 | 4,000 | +8.3% |
1817 | 5,341 | +33.5% |
1828 | 14,439 | +170.3% |
1841 | 14,422 | −0.1% |
1851 | 20,749 | +43.9% |
1861 | 25,026 | +20.6% |
1871 | 29,582 | +18.2% |
1881 | 36,100 | +22.0% |
1891 | 38,437 | +6.5% |
1901 | 40,832 | +6.2% |
2021 | 156,141 | +14.4% |
From 1749 until 1842; Halifax was a Town. From 1842 until 1996; Halifax was a City. From 1996 until present; Halifax has been a Community. Source: [89][90][91][92][93][94] |
See also
- List of mayors of Halifax, Nova Scotia
- List of people from the Halifax Regional Municipality
- History of Dartmouth
- Military history of Nova Scotia
- History of Nova Scotia
- Black Nova Scotians
References
Endnotes
- ^ "Mi'kmaq Online.org – Words, Pronunciation – Jipugtug (with audio clips)". MikmaqOnline.org. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
- ^ "MapleSquare.com – Halifax's History – Jipugtug (or Chebucto)". MapleSquare.com. Archived from the original on 2009-02-04. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
- ^ a b Grenier (2008), pp. 143–149.
- ^ "Halifax history". Macalester.edu. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
- ^ "Treaty of Aix la Chapelle". Canadahistory.com. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
- ^ Beck, J. Murray (1979). "Cornwallis, Edward". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. IV (1771–1800) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
- ^ Grenier, John. The Far Reaches of Empire. War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Norman: U of Oklahoma P, 2008; Thomas Beamish Akins. History of Halifax, Brookhouse Press. 1895. (2002 edition). p 7
- ^ Wicken, p. 181; Griffiths (2005), p. 390; Also see "Northeast Archaeological Research --". Archived from the original on 2013-05-14. Retrieved 2014-02-05.
- ^ Harry Chapman. In the Wake of the Alderney: Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, 1750-2000. Dartmouth Historical Association. 2000. p. 23; John Grenier (2008). The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. p. 150; For the primary sources that document the Raids on Dartmouth see the Diary of John Salusbury (diarist): Expeditions of Honour: The Journal of John Salusbury in Halifax; also see A genuine narrative of the transactions in Nova Scotia since the settlement, June 1749, till August the 5th, 1751 [microform] : in which the nature, soil, and produce of the country are related, with the particular attempts of the Indians to disturb the colony / by John Wilson. Also see History of Nova Scotia
- ^ Thomas Beamish Akins. History of Halifax, Brookhouse Press. 1895. (2002 edition). p 18
- ^ Thomas Beamish Akins. History of Halifax. Brookhouse Press. 1895. (2002 edition). p 19
- ^ a b Thomas Atkins. History of Halifax City. Brook House Press. 2002 (reprinted 1895 edition). p 334
- ^ Akins, p. 27.
- ^ John Grenier (2008). The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. p. 159.
- ISBN 978-0-8061-3876-3.
- ^ a b John Grenier (2008). The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. p. 160
- ^ Atkins, pp. 27-28.
- ^ John Grenier (2008). The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. p.160; Cornwallis' official report mentioned that four settlers were killed and six soldiers taken prisoner. See Governor Cornwallis to Board of Trade, letter, June 24, 1751, referenced in Harry Chapman, p. 29; John Wilson reported that fifteen people were killed immediately, seven were wounded, three of whom would die in hospital; six were carried away and never seen again" (See A genuine narrative of the transactions in Nova Scotia since the settlement, June 1749, till August the 5th, 1751 [microform] : in which the nature, soil, and produce of the country are related, with the particular attempts of the Indians to disturb the colony / by John Wilson
- ^ See annonmous private letter printed by Harry Chapman, p. 30.
- ^ Piers, Harry. The Evolution of the Halifax Fortress Archived 2012-11-02 at the Wayback Machine (Halifax, PANS, Pub. #7, 1947), p. 6 As cited in Peter Landry's. The Lion and the Lily. Vol. 1. Trafford Press. 2007. p. 370
- ^ Thomas Atkins. History of Halifax City. Brook House Press. 2002 (reprinted 1895 edition). p. 209.
- ^ Fischer, L. R. (1979). "Francklin, Michael". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. IV (1771–1800) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
- ^ J.S. McLennan. Louisbourg: From its foundation to its fall (1713-1758). 1918, p. 190
- ^ Earle Lockerby. Pre-Deportation Letters from Ile Saint Jean. Les Cahiers. La Societe hitorique acadienne. Vol. 42, No. 2. June 2011. pp. 99-100.
- ^ Bell Foreign Protestants. p. 508
- ^ John Faragher. Great and Noble Scheme. Norton. 2005. p. 398.
- ^ Knox. Vol. 2, p. 443 Bell, p. 514
- ISBN 9780665364563.
- ^ Harry Chapman, p. 32; Faragher 2005, p. 410
- ^ Beamish Murdoch. History of Nova Scotia. Vol.2. p. 366
- ISBN 978-1-55109-740-4.
- ^ Major, p. 181.
- ^ Johnston. Endgame
- Raddall, ThomasHalifax: Warden of the North, (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart) p. 64
- ^ A view from Cornwallis Island in 1757. By: Kessler, Ryan, Canada's History, 19209894, Dec2012/Jan2013, Vol. 92, Issue 6
- ^ Some accounts give the date as July 8, 1761
- ^ Trevor Kenchington, "The Navy's First Halifax", Argonauta, Canadian Nautical Research Society, Vol. X, No. 2 (April 1993), p. 9
- ^ Akins, Dr. Thomas B. History of Halifax City, p. 85.
- ^ Prince Edward's Legacy: The Duke of Kent in Halifax: Romance and Beautiful ... By William D. Naftel
- ^ "Prince Edward and Nova Scotia".
- ^ a b c Elizabeth Longford, ‘Edward, Prince, duke of Kent and Strathearn (1767–1820)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004
- London Gazetteissue 15126, page 372, published 20 April 1799.
- ^ The Times, Monday, 22 Jul 1799; pg. 3; Issue 4541.
- ^ By the arrival of the Packet from America we learn that the Duke of Kent was to embark at Halifax for this country about the 5 August on board of the Assistance, Captain Hall, his Royal Highnesses state of health rendering his return to England necessary. Very few Officers have been so constantly kept on foreign service as his Royal Highness, who we have reason to believe is coming home to be appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. The Times, Friday, 22 Aug 1800; pg. 3; Issue 4880.
- ^ Mercer, p. 232
- ^ Mercer, p. 236
- ^ Mercer, p. 235
- ISBN 9780776605739
- ^ a b Toll (2007), p. 415.
- ^ Toll (2007), p. 416.
- ^ Padfield 1968, p. 188.
- ^ Shea & Watts 2005, pp. 27–29.
- ^ Shea & Watts 2005, p. 30.
- ^ Shea & Watts 2005, p. 31.
- ^ "Nova Scotia Archives - Error". 20 April 2020.
- ^ H. W. L. Doane, "Reorganization of the Halifax Water System", Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 38, No. 7 (July 1946)
- ^ Thomas Akins. History of Halifax. p. 174
- ^ Akins, p. 159
- ^ a b Boyd Jr, Frank S. (1985). "Preston, Richard". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. VIII (1851–1860) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
- ^ Pier 21 - Black Refugees
- ^ Nova Scotia Archives
- ISBN 978-0-7385-7272-7.
- ^ Richard Preston 'Canada's RMC: A History of the Royal Military College of Canada' published by the RMC Club by U of Toronto Press.
- ^ Beau Cleland. Between King Cotton and Queen Victoria: Confederate Informal Diplomacy and Privatized Violence in British America During the American Civil War (Thesis). University of Calgary. p. 2.
- ^ Greg Marquis. In Armagedon's Shadow: The Civil War and Canada's Maritime Provinces, (1998) McGill Queens Press, p. 233
- ^ James D. Frost, "Halifax: the Wharf of the Dominion, 1867-1914." Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society 2005 8: 35-48.
- ^ Yorke, Lois K. (1998). "Edwards, Anna Harriette". In Cook, Ramsay; Hamelin, Jean (eds.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. XIV (1911–1920) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
- ^ David A. Sutherland. "Halifax Encounter with the North-West Uprising of 1885. Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society. Vol. 13, 2010. p. 74
- ^ David A. Sutherland. "Halifax Encounter with the North-West Uprising of 1885". Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society. Vol. 13, 2010. p. 73
- ^ Canadian War Museum (2008). "Battle of Paardeberg". Canadian War Museum. Archived from the original on 2007-07-18. Retrieved 2008-05-10.
- ^ Canadian War Museum (2008). "Battle of Faber's Put". Canadian War Museum. Archived from the original on 2007-07-18. Retrieved 2008-05-10.
- ^ Canadian War Museum (2008). "Battle of Leliefontein". Canadian War Museum. Archived from the original on 2012-03-24. Retrieved 2008-05-10.
- Halifax and Southwestern Railway
- ^ Eaton & Haas 1995, pp. 244–245.
- ^ Van Wyen, Adrian O. (1969). Naval Aviation in World War I. Washington, D.C.: Chief of Naval Operations. p. 81.
- ^ "CBC - Halifax Explosion - Disputes over Time". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
- ^ "Boston Common Holiday Tree Lighting Coming December 3", Press Release, Parks Department, City of Boston, November 13, 2009
- ^ "Holiday Tree Lightings Begin November 23", Press Release, Parks Department, City of Boston, November 09, 2009
- ^ Halifax International Airport Authority. "History of the Halifax International Airport" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2003-03-10. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
- ^ Bedford magazine explosion
- ^ "The Other Halifax Explosion...Bedford Magazine 1945, Mac's Navy Links a naval photography page. - macsnavylinks.ca". Archived from the original on 2012-08-21. Retrieved 2013-01-22.
- ^ Thomas Raddall, Halifax: Warden of the North (1948), p. 336
- ^ Lorna Inness, "Halifax Citadel Takes History to the People", Halifax Chronicle Herald, July 1, 2012
- ^ "Government Proclaims New Halifax Charter". 11 May 2018.
- ^ Halifax park renamed Africville", CBC News, July 29, 2011
- ^ "Africville replica church celebrated" CBC News, Sept 25, 2011; Dan Arsenault, "Tears and memories mark Africville church opening" Halifax Chronicle Herald, Sept. 26, 2011
- ^ "Census 2021 Census Tracts". HRM Open Data. Government of the Municipality of Halifax. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
- ^ "Census 2016 Census Tracts". HRM Open Data. Government of the Municipality of Halifax. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
- ^ [1] Archived 2016-01-14 at the Wayback Machine, population by district 2006
- ^ "Canada Year Book 1932" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-10-19. Retrieved 2014-08-30., Canada Year Book 1932
- ^ 140.pdf Archived January 14, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Canada Year Book 1955
- ^ "Canada Year Book 1967" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-12-23. Retrieved 2014-08-30., Canada Year Book 1967
- ^ [2], 1996 Census of Canada: Electronic Area Profiles
- ^ [3], 2001 Community Profiles
Sources
- Eaton, John P.; Haas, Charles A. (1995). Titanic: Triumph and Tragedy. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-03697-8.
- Shea, Iris V.; Watts, Heather (2005). Deadman's: Melville Island & Its Burial Ground. Tantallon Nova Scotia: Glen Margaret Publishers. ISBN 978-0-393-05847-5.
Further reading
- Elson, Bryan (2014). Canada's Bastions of Empire: Halifax, Victoria and the Royal Navy 1749–1918. Formac Publishing.
- Grenier, John (2008). The Far Reaches of Empire. War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3876-3.
- ISBN 978-0-7735-2699-0.
- Laffoley, Steven (2007). Hunting Halifax: In Search of History, Mystery and Murder. Pottersfield Press.
- Lennox, Jeffers (2007). "An empire on paper: The founding of Halifax and conceptions of imperial space, 1744-55". Canadian Historical Review. 88 (3): 373–412. .
- MacDonald, Laura M. (2006). Curse of the Narrows: The Halifax Disaster of 1917. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.
- L. D. Mccann; Elaine Young: Halifax at The Canadian Encyclopedia, 2019
- Murdoch, Beamish (1866). A History of Nova-Scotia, Or Acadie. Vol. II. Halifax: J. Barnes. pp. 166–167.
- Naftel, William (2008). Halifax at War: Searchlights, Squadrons and Submarines 1939-1945. Formac.
- Phillips, Jim & May, Allyson N. (2002). "Female Criminality in 18th-Century Halifax". Acadiensis: 71–96.
- Raddall, Thomas H. (1993). Halifax, Warden of the North. Halifax, Nova Scotia: Nimbus. ISBN 9781551090603.
- Tattrie, Jon (2013). Cornwallis: The Violent Birth of Halifax. Pottersfield Press. ISBN 9781897426487.
- Wicken, William (2002). Mi'kmaq Treaties on Trial: History, Land, and Donald Marshall Junior. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Primary sources
- Thomas Atkins. Papers related to the first settlement of Halifax (1749-1756)
- Letter from British settler. July 1749. London Magazine
External links
- Akins, Thomas B., History of Halifax, 1895.
- HRM History
- Government House – Halifax, Nova Scotia Archived 2011-10-17 at the Wayback Machine