History of the Hajj

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Muslims
Pilgrim encampment c. 1910

The

Islamic prophet Muhammad, around 632 CE, who reformed the existing pilgrimage tradition of the pagan Arabs. According to Islamic tradition, the hajj dates from thousands of years earlier, from when Abraham, upon God's command, built the Kaaba
(the "house of God"). This cubic building is considered the most holy site in Islam and the rituals of the hajj include walking repeatedly around it.

In medieval times, pilgrims would gather in cities like Basra, Damascus, and Cairo to go to Mecca in groups and caravans comprising tens of thousands of pilgrims. Some came from further afield in sailing ships. The Sultans of the Ottoman Empire supported the pilgrims, appointing the Amir al-Hajj ("Commander of the Hajj") to organise and lead the caravans. As other modes of transport including steamships and trains were introduced, pilgrims were able to make the trip to Mecca more quickly.

The nomadic tribes of the desert – known as Bedouin – had been a persistent security issue for the hajj caravans. The annual pilgrimage offered pilgrims as well as professional merchants the opportunity to conduct various merchandising activities both on route and in Mecca, Damascus, and Cairo. Through its history, the hajj has influenced literature and art as pilgrims have written guides and created artistic depictions of the holy sites and rituals.

Origin

In Islamic tradition, pilgrimage was introduced during the time of prophet

revelation in which Allah told the aged prophet that he should now go and proclaim the pilgrimage to mankind.[2] The Quran refers to these incidents in 2:124-127 and 22:27-30. Islamic scholar Shibli Nomani mentions that the house raised by Abraham was 27 feet high, 96 feet long, and 66 feet wide.[4]

History

Pre-Islamic Arabia

A camel caravan traveling to Mecca for the annual pilgrimage, c. 1910.

Arafat. Some would maintain silence during the whole course of pilgrimage. Except for those from the Quraysh tribe, pilgrims would perform tawaf while naked. During the initial years of Muhammad's prophethood, the pilgrimage season offered Muhammad the occasion to preach Islam to the foreign people who came to Mecca for pilgrimage.[citation needed
]

Muhammad and the Hajj

The present pattern of the Hajj was established by

The Farewell Sermon – to those who were present there.[10] From then, Hajj became one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Hajj was made compulsory in 09th Hijri.[11]

Indian (top) and Iranian (bottom) pilgrim camps depicted in the 1677 Anis al-Hujjaj

Caliphate era

Further information:
Arab Caliphate

During medieval times, pilgrims would gather in the capital cities of Syria, Egypt, and Iraq to go to Mecca in groups and caravans comprising tens of thousands of pilgrims.[12] The Muslim rulers would undertake the responsibility of the Hajj, and provide state patronage for organizing such pilgrimage caravans.[13][14] To facilitate the pilgrimage journey, a road measuring 900 miles was constructed, stretching from Iraq to Mecca and Medina. The road's construction was probably undertaken during the third Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi, father of fifth Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid, around 780 CE. It was later named the 'Way of Zubayda' (Darb Zubaidah), after Harun's wife, as she is noted for conducting improvements along the route and furnishing it with water cisterns and eating houses for pilgrims at regular intervals.[15][16] Both Harun and Zubayda performed the Hajj several times conducted improvement activities in Mecca and Medina.[17][18]

A good deal of information on the medieval hajj comes from the firsthand observations of three Muslim travelers -

Mamluk period), Damascus and Cairo became the main assembly points for the pilgrims.[21] While pilgrims from Syria, Iraq, and Iran, and Anatolia regions joined the Damascus caravan, those from North Africa and Sub-Saharan regions joined the Cairo caravan.[12][21]

Ottoman era

Further information: Mamluk Sultanate, Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Arabia, and Hejaz vilayet
The Egyptian pilgrim caravan crossing the Suez Canal on its way to Mecca, circa 1885

After the Ottomans came into power, the sultans of

Amir al-Hajj. They were in charge of protecting the pilgrims of the caravan, and securing funds and supplies for the journey.[25] Surgeons and physicians were also sent with Syrian caravans to doctor the pilgrims free of costs.[26] During this period, around 20,000 to 60,000 people made their pilgrimage annually.[25]

Modern period

Hejaz Railway

During the second half of the nineteenth century (after 1850s),

Hejaz Railway between Damascus and Medina which further facilitated the pilgrimage journey: the pilgrims traveled in relative ease and reached Hejaz in only four days.[30] Starting from Damascus in September 1900, the railway reached Medina in September 1908 having a span of 1,300 kilometers (810 mi).[31][32] The railroad was damaged during the First World War by an Arab Revolt force led by British officer T. E. Lawrence.[33][30] Plague used to break out almost every year until 1918.[34]

Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works in Switzerland built a class of ten 2-8-0 locomotives for the Hejaz Railway in 1912, numbered 87–96.

After a contract between the Saudi Arabian government and the Misr Airlines of Egypt in 1936, the Misr Airlines introduced the first airline service for Hajj pilgrims in 1937.[35] The subsequent engine trouble of the aircraft disrupted the hajj flights, and the Second World War from 1939 to 1945 caused a decrease in pilgrims' number. Modern transportation systems in the pilgrimage journey effectively began only after the Second World War. Saudi Arabia established the Arabian Transport Company and the Bakhashab Transport Company, in 1946 and 1948, respectively, in order to transport the pilgrims at various Hajj sites which proved highly effective in later years, and the use of camels as a means of transport for pilgrimage journeys virtually ended in 1950.[35] According to one account, during the pilgrimage seasons of 1946–1950, around 80% of the total foreign pilgrims arrived by sea, 10% by land, and 7% by air transport.[36] The 1970s and subsequent decades saw a dramatic increase in the number of pilgrims because of the availability of affordable air travel system.[37]

In 1979, a large group of rebels seized the mosque. This was known as the Grand Mosque seizure. It took two weeks for the authorities to bring the situation under control and the rebels were later executed.[38][39] In recent years there have been several notable incidents such as a human stampede in 2004 and 2006, a crane collapse in 2015 and a stampede in the same year; the government of Saudi Arabia has spent billions of dollars in crowd control and safety measures.[40] During the COVID-19 pandemic, only 10,000 people were allowed to participate in the Hajj of 2020, with pilgrim numbers rising to 59,000 in 2021.[41] Amidst the lifting of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, Hajj participation figures rebounded to 926,000 in 2022, and roughly doubled to 1.84 million in 2023.[42]

Hajj routes

The procession waiting for the pilgrim. On the right are camels kneeling down. On the left are the silver-and-ivory palanquins, 1911.

"Way of Zubayda" (Iraqi route)

In medieval Iraq, the principal gathering points for the pilgrims were

Nejd region (a region in central Saudi Arabia), proceeded to Medina, and then reached Mecca.[43]

Syrian route

In medieval Syria, the departure point for the pilgrims was

Al-'Ula (in north-western Saudi Arabia, 380 km north of Medina), then proceeded to Medina, and then reached Mecca.[44][45]

From the Umayyad period until Ottoman times, the town of Ma'an served as a market place for the pilgrims on the Syrian route.[46]

Ottoman period

Ottoman khans are fortified inns for pilgrims, which are called in different ways -

khan, qal'a/qil'a, or manzil.[clarification needed
]

  1.  Sulaymaniyya Takiyya
  2.  
    Maydan
  3.  Kiswa (Al-Kiswah)
  4.  Khan Dannun
  5.  Ghabaghib
  6.  
    Sanamayn
  7.  Muzayrib
  8.  Mafraq: Khan or Qal'at el-Mafraq[47]
  9. Manzil az-Zarqa or Qasr Shabib/[47]Shebib (32°03′48″N 36°04′56″E / 32.06333°N 36.08222°E / 32.06333; 36.08222)[48]
  10.  Birkat Zizia: Manzil or Qal'at Zizya[47]
  11.  Dab'ah: Manzil or Qal'at Dab'ah[47] (see pin map at Theeb: Qasr Dab'ah about 40 km SSE of Amman; previously Qal'at Balqa'; 31°35′46″N 36°03′02″E / 31.59611°N 36.05056°E / 31.59611; 36.05056)[49]
  12.  Qatrana: Khan Qatrana/[47]Qasr al-Qatraneh (31°14′30″N 36°02′23″E / 31.24167°N 36.03972°E / 31.24167; 36.03972)[50]
  13. Wadi el-Hasa in its upper course, 5 km northwest of the Hejaz railway station, at 30°50′21″N 35°56′01″E / 30.83917°N 35.93361°E / 30.83917; 35.93361.[51]
  14.  Uneiza ('Unayzah): Khan al-'Unayzah/[47]Qal'at 'Unaiza (30°29′17″N 35°47′43″E / 30.48806°N 35.79528°E / 30.48806; 35.79528)[52]
  15.  Ma'an: Manzilt or Qal'at Ma'an[47]
  16.  Fassu'a: Manzilt or Qal'at Fassu'a[47] (29°45′55″N 35°52′51″E / 29.76528°N 35.88083°E / 29.76528; 35.88083)[53]
  17.  
    Qal'at al-Mudawwara[47] (29°19′23″N 35°59′28″E / 29.32306°N 35.99111°E / 29.32306; 35.99111)[54]
  18.  Dhat al-Hajj
  19.  Tabuk
  20. Qalandariyya
  21.  
    Qal'at al-Akhdar
  22. Muazzem/Al-Mu'azzam
  23.  Dar al-Hamra
  24.  Mada'in Saleh/
    Meda'in Saleh
    (Al-Hijr/Hegra)
  25.  
    Al-'Ula
  26.  Bir al-Ghannam
  27.  Zumurrud/Zumrud
  28.  Sawrah
  29.  Hadiyya (Hadiyyah, Al Madinah)
  30.  Nakhlatayn
  31.  Wadi al-Qura
  32.  Hafira/al-Hafirah

Egyptian route

For the Egyptian route, the pilgrims would gather in Cairo, and after four days, start for the ground of Ajrud (24 kilometers northwest of Suez), and from there they would reach Suez, and crossing the Sinai Peninsula through Al-Nakhl point, they would reach Aqaba (in south part of present-day Jordan), then traveling parallel to the Red Sea, they reach Yanbu, then proceed to Medina, and finally reach Mecca.[55][44] The hajj caravans would start their pilgrimage journey from there, traveled by land or sea and through deserts, and, after the performance of pilgrimage, return there. The total journey would take approximately two to three months on average.[55][21]

From further afield

Netherlands East Indies (today Indonesia) on board of the Rotterdamsche Lloyd steamer Kota Nopan, in the Red Sea
, 1937.

The pilgrimage to Mecca was mainly an overland journey using

Mocha, Yemen.[58] Pilgrims from Maghreb (Tunisia, Algeria, Libya) would travel through the lower coast of Mediterranean sea to reach and join the Cairo caravans.[59] Some pilgrims coming from Africa would cross the Red Sea to reach the Hejaz, and then to Mecca.[60][61]

Mahmal, royal power symbols

Main article: Mahmal
The Egyptian Mahmal on its way to Mecca, c. 1880

A mahmal was a ceremonial passenger-less litter that was carried on a camel among the pilgrim caravan each year from the 13th century to the mid-20th. It symbolised the political power of the sultans who sent it, demonstrating their custody of Islam's holy sites. Mahmals were sent from Cairo, Damascus, Yemen, Hyderabad, Darfur, and the Timurid Empire in different periods.[62] The arrival of a mahmal in Mecca was a significant occasion which local people and pilgrims came out to watch.[63] Before entry to the city, the simple textiles which had covered the mahmal on its journey were replaced with the kiswah: an ornate, colourful textile embroidered with verses from the Quran and the tughra (emblem) of the sponsoring sultan.[64] Mahmals from different countries competed for the best position in front of the Kaaba.[64] A mahmal returning from Mecca to its city of origin was regarded as carrying barakah (blessing). As the procession returned, parents brought out their children to touch the mahmal, and people briefly put their handkerchiefs inside it.[65]

Taxation on pilgrims

Ornamental chamfron (face armour) for a camel or horse in the Mahmal procession, Ottoman Empire, 18th century.

According to Ibn Jubayr, during the period of

Baybers and Hassan – made active attempts to control the Meccan local rulers from taxing the pilgrim caravans by compensating the Meccan rulers with annual allocation of a fixed sum of money.[67]
Al-Suyuti mentions that in the year 384 AH (around 994 CE), pilgrims who came from Iraq, Syria, and Yemen to perform hajj went back unsuccessful because they were not allowed to perform hajj without paying tax. Only Egyptian pilgrims performed hajj that year.[16]

Bedouin security issues

An Ottoman fort in Saudi Arabia, adjacent to Bedouin encampments, 1907.

Throughout the history of the hajj, the nomadic tribes of desert – known as

Bani Sakhr, attacked the hajj caravans that resulted in the death of many pilgrims, immediately and afterwards, as well as other casualties.[70]

Trading activities

Throughout the history, the pilgrimage journey to Mecca had offered the pilgrims as well as the professional

goods, produced in their respective lands, in order to sell them, thus becoming an occasional trader, and managing some expenses for hajj trip.[73] According to John Lewis Burckhardt, the Afghans brought coarse shawls, beads of stone, tooth-brush; the European Turks brought shoes, slippers, knit silk purse, embroidered items, and sweetmeats; the Anatolian Turks brought Angora shawls and carpet; the pilgrims of Maghreb brought cloaks made of wool.[73]
The professional businessmen conducted large-scale merchandising activities that included transportation of goods between Mecca and their own towns as well as sales alone the hajj route.[74] The Indian and other Eastern goods, brought to Mecca by ships, were purchased by big merchants of Cairo and Damascus who, upon return, then sold them in their own markets. These goods generally included Indian textile, various spices, coffee, drugs, and precious stones.[75]

Hajj certificates

Early 20th century Hajj certificate illustrating, with captions, various features of the Mecca sanctuary.

From the 11th century to the early 20th century, pilgrims could obtain paper Hajj certificates which they would typically display in their homes.[76] The earliest known certificates, from the 11th century, are purely calligraphic works. From the late 12th century onwards, they included depictions of the Kaaba and other holy sites, either hand-painted or woodblock printed.[77] These are some of the earliest surviving figurative depictions of these sites.[78] Over the years, the certificates became more colourful. Being distributed throughout the Muslim world by returning pilgrims, they were used as references for other artistic depictions of the holy sites.[77] They served as maps and guides to the pilgrimage routes. Later certificates listed the rites that a pilgrim had performed at each location, and illustrated the locations in vertical sequence.[78] By confirming the devotional activities of the pilgrim in the sight of Allah, the certificates were seen as a source of barakah (blessing), which was enhanced by them being made near the holy site of Mecca and bearing Quranic text.[78] Certificates that survive include that of the 16th century Ottoman prince Mehmed.[79]

See also

References

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  3. ^ a b Haykal (2008), pp. 29–30
  4. Sirat-un-Nabi. vol 1, Lahore
  5. ^ Haykal (2008), p. 35
  6. ^ a b Haykal (2008), pp. 439–40
  7. ^ "Hajj". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2014. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
  8. ^ Haykal (2008), p. 501
  9. ^ Campo (2009), p. 494
  10. ^ Haykal (2008), p. 520–1
  11. ^ "In which Hijri year Hajj was made compulsory?". 2019-02-11.
  12. ^ a b Peters (1994), p. 164
  13. ^ Campo (2009), p. 283
  14. ^ Singer (2002), p. 142
  15. ^ Robinson (1996), p. 139
  16. ^ a b Al-Suyuti
  17. ^ Al-Hariri-Rifai (1990), p. 25
  18. ^ Peters (1994), p. 71
  19. ^ Friedman (2013), p. 270
  20. ^ Friedman (2013), p. 269
  21. ^ a b c Cosman (2008), p. 814.
  22. ^ Peters (1994), pp. 145-6
  23. ^ Peters (1994), p. 146
  24. ^ Singer (2002), p. 140
  25. ^ a b Singer (2002), p. 141
  26. ^ Peters (1994), p. 269.
  27. ^ Tagliacozzo (2016), p. 178
  28. ^ Davidson (2002), p. 220
  29. ^ Peters (1994), p. 283
  30. ^ a b Al-Hariri Rifai (1990), p. 38
  31. ^ Peters (1994), p. 316–7
  32. ISBN 978-3-8480-0516-1
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  37. ^ Tagliacozzo (2016), p. 132
  38. ^ Benjamin, The Age of Sacred Terror (2002) p. 90
  39. Google Newspapers
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  40. ^ "AP count: Over 2,400 killed in Saudi hajj stampede, crush". AP News. 2015-12-10. Retrieved 2023-07-16.
  41. ^ "'Largest Hajj pilgrimage in history' begins in Saudi Arabia". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2023-07-16.
  42. ^ "Saudi Arabia: Hajj draws 1.8 million pilgrims, falls short of pre-pandemic record". The New Arab. June 27, 2023. Retrieved October 27, 2023.
  43. ^ Peters (1994), p. 74
  44. ^ a b Al-Hariri Rifai (1990), p. 37
  45. ^ Peters (1994), pp. 82 & 85–86
  46. ^ Peters (1994), pp. 291–2.
  47. ^
    OCLC 1106116517
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  48. ^ Qasr Shebib in Zarqa; at Jordan’s Ottoman Hajj Forts. Accessed 28 March 2024.
  49. ^ Qal'at Dab'a at Jordan’s Ottoman Hajj Forts. Accessed 28 March 2024.
  50. ^ Qal'at Qatrana at Jordan’s Ottoman Hajj Forts. Accessed 28 March 2024.
  51. ^ Qal'at Al-Hasa at Jordan’s Ottoman Hajj Forts. Accessed 28 March 2024.
  52. ^ Qal'at 'Unaiza at Jordan’s Ottoman Hajj Forts. Accessed 28 March 2024.
  53. ^ Qal'at Fassu'a at Jordan’s Ottoman Hajj Forts. Accessed 28 March 2024.
  54. ^ Qal'at Mudawwara at Jordan’s Ottoman Hajj Forts. Accessed 28 March 2024.
  55. ^ a b Peters (1994), p. 87.
  56. ^ Tagliacozzo (2016), p. 113 & 114
  57. ^ Khan, Iftikhar A. (1 January 2012). "A Hajj Pilgrim's Travelogue and Manual: The Sea Traveller 1676-1677". Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society. 60 (1): 7–12.
  58. OCLC 857109543
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  60. ISBN 978-0-415-96691-7
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  62. OCLC 857109543
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  63. ISBN 9780714111766
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  64. ^
    OCLC 52500776
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  65. OCLC 1128065777.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
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  68. ^ Peters (1994), p. 159
  69. ^ a b Peters (1994), pp. 159-60
  70. ^ Peters (1994), p. 161
  71. ^ Peters (1994), p. 180
  72. ^ Robinson (1996), p. 141
  73. ^ a b Peters (1994), p. 181
  74. ^ Peters (1994), p. 182
  75. ^ Peters (1994), pp. 180-81
  76. ISBN 978-0-429-75663-4
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  77. ^
    OCLC 857109543.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
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  78. ^
    ISBN 978-1-107-03051-0
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  79. OCLC 857109543.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link
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Bibliography

External links
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