Hygiene in Christianity

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Bishop Sebouh Chouldjian of the Armenian Apostolic Church washing the feet
of children.

In some

personal hygiene and toilet etiquette to the complex public rituals of social etiquette.[3]

Certain Christian rules of purity have implications for bodily hygiene and observing

footwashing employed a basin of water and linen towels, done in the imitation of Christ.[9]

Christianity has always placed a strong emphasis on hygiene,[10] and water plays a role in the Christian rituals.[1] The Church also built public bathing facilities that were separate for both sexes near monasteries and pilgrimage sites; also, the Catholic popes situated baths within church basilicas and monasteries since the Early Middle Ages.[11] Public bathhouse were common in medieval Christendom larger towns and cities such as Constantinople, Rome, Paris, Regensburg and Naples.[12][13]

Many Christian monastic communities throughout history have emphasized cleanliness and hygiene as part of their spiritual practice.

Christian missionaries in Africa,[16] Asia and other places was better health care of the people through hygiene and introducing and distributing the soaps.[17][18]

Bible

The

personal hygiene and toilet etiquette to the complex public rituals of social etiquette.[3] The Bible also has many rituals of purification relating to menstruation, childbirth, sexual relations, nocturnal emission, unusual bodily fluids, skin disease, death, and animal sacrifices. In the Old Testament, ablution was considered a prerequisite to approaching God, whether by means of sacrifice, prayer, or entering a holy place.[19]

Old Testament

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The Old Testament requires immersion of the body in water as a means of purification in several circumstances, for example:

And when the zav is cleansed of his issue, then he shall number to himself seven days for his cleansing, and wash his clothes; and he shall bathe his flesh in running water, and shall be clean.[20]

There are also references to

hand-washing
:

And whoever the zav touches, without having rinsed his hands in water, he shall wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and be unclean until the evening.[21]
I will wash my hands in innocency; so will I compass Thine altar, O LORD.[22]

Priests were required to wash their hands and feet before service in the Temple:

Thou shalt also make a laver of brass, and the base thereof of brass, whereat to wash; and thou shalt put it between the tent of meeting and the altar, and thou shalt put water therein. And Aaron and his sons shall wash their hands and their feet thereat; when they go into the tent of meeting, they shall wash with water, that they die not; or when they come near to the altar to minister, to cause an offering made by fire to smoke unto the LORD.[23]

Book of Leviticus

See also: Law of Moses
hand-washing during the Mass
.

With sacrifice and priesthood established, chapters 11–15 in the book of Leviticus instruct the lay people on purity (or cleanliness). Eating certain animals produces uncleanliness, as does giving birth; certain skin diseases (but not all) are unclean, as are certain conditions affecting walls and clothing (mildew and similar conditions); and genital discharges, including female menses and male gonorrhea, are unclean. The reasoning behind the food rules are obscure; for the rest the guiding principle seems to be that all these conditions involve a loss of "life force", usually but not always blood.[24]

Ritual purity is essential for an Israelite to be able to approach Yahweh and remain part of the community.[25] Uncleanliness threatens holiness;[26] Chapters 11–15 review the various causes of uncleanliness and describe the rituals which will restore cleanliness;[27] one is to maintain cleanliness through observation of the rules on sexual behaviour, family relations, land ownership, worship, sacrifice, and observance of holy days.[28]

Yahweh dwells with Israel in the holy of holies. All of the priestly ritual focuses on Yahweh and the construction and maintenance of a holy space, but sin generates impurity, as do everyday events such as childbirth and menstruation; impurity pollutes the holy dwelling place. Failure to purify the sacred space ritually could result in God's leaving, which would be disastrous.[29]

New Testament

Christ washing the Disciples' feet, by Benvenuto Tisi.

In the New Testament, washing also occurs in reference to rites of Judaism[30] part of the action of a healing by Jesus,[31] the preparation of a body for burial,[32] the washing of nets by fishermen,[33] a person's personal washing of the face to appear in public,[34] the cleansing of an injured person's wounds,[35] Pontius Pilate's washing of his hands as a symbolic claim of innocence[36] and foot washing,[37] which is a rite within the Christian Churches.[38][39] According to the Gospel of Matthew, Pontius Pilate declared himself innocent of the blood of Jesus by washing his hands.[40] This act of Pilate may not, however, have been borrowed from the custom of the Jews. The same practice was common among the Greeks and Romans.

According to Christian tradition, the

Book of Acts, Paul and other men performed ablution before entering the Temple in Jerusalem: "Then Paul took the men, and the next day purifying himself with them entered into the temple, to signify the accomplishment of the days of purification, until that an offering should be offered for every one of them."[45]

History

Early Christianity

Agkistro Byzantine bath.

Church Fathers, such as Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian.[46][47]

The Church also built

footwashing employed a basin of water and linen towels, done in the imitation of Christ.[9]

Middle Ages

Eastern Christendom

Byzantine Bath in Thessaloniki.

Great

Augustaeum and the basilica of Hagia Sophia
.

Although Byzantine bathhouses were primarily used for public bathing, people could also exercise and enjoy a variety of recreational activities there. Attendants were paid to oversee the activities, enforcing opening and closing times and the rules of conduct. Men and women were not allowed to bathe together; they would either use separate baths, or bathe at different times of day.[50]

The Byzantine Bath of the Upper Town was one of several in Thessaloniki —the 14th-century writer Nikephoros Choumnos claims that Thessaloniki had more baths than inhabitants[51]—but is the only surviving in Thessaloniki and the largest and most complete of the Byzantine baths surviving elsewhere in Greece: one in Agkistro, five ruined public baths—two in Corinth, one in Sparta, one in Paramythia, one in Ioannina Castle—and one each in the monasteries of Kaisariani and Zoodochos Pigi.[52]

Believing that on

holy wells in Europe and the Middle East, and its water are known for its healing properties.[54]

Western Christendom

Bagno del Papa in Viterbo.

The

bath houses including hot baths incorporated into Christian church buildings or those of monasteries, which known as "charity baths" because they served both the clerics and needy poor people.[55]

Benedictine monks played a role in the development and promotion of spas.[15] Protestant Christianity also played a prominent role in the development of the British spas.[15]

In c. 1454 Pope

Pius II was responsible for the addition of a western wing to the building.[58]

Contrary to popular belief

Catholic manufacturers purchased the monopoly on Castile soap from the cash-strapped Carolinian government.[63]

Modern period

Salvation Army
personal hygiene kits.

By the mid-19th century, the English urbanised middle classes had formed an ideology of cleanliness that ranked alongside typical

personal hygiene,[65][66] and by providing personal hygiene products, such as a toothbrush, toothpaste, and soap.[67][68][69]

The Seventh-day Adventist Church teach its adherents the importance of personal hygiene and sanitation, and emphasize the importance of drinking clean water, bathing and clean clothes. They were also encouraged to eat clean food.[70] The Seventh-day Adventist Church in Africa and the rest of the world promotes male infant circumcision.[70]

A major contribution of the

brushes.[17] According to scholar John Thomas "cleanliness and hygiene became an important marker of being identified as a Christian".[18]

The

Orthodox and Lutheran countries such as Greece and Finland respectively, where bidet showers are common.[79]

Washing before Christian prayer and worship

Further information: Ablution in Christianity and Cantharus (Christianity)
Cantharus of Pamplona Cathedral in Spain

Around the time of

Holy Communion.[8][80] Churches from the time of Constantine the Great were thus built with an esonarthex that included a fountain known as a cantharus, where Christians would wash their hands, face and feet before entering the worship space (cf. Exodus 30:17–21); they continue to be used in Orthodox Christian churches.[80][81][8][82] The practice of ablutions before prayer and worship in Christianity symbolizes "separation from sins of the spirit and surrender to the Lord."[8]

As early as the 2nd century, Christians hung a

Ethiopian Orthodox Church, wash their hands, face and feet (cf. Shehimo and Agpeya).[86][87][88][89]

headcovering if they were not already veiled at home prior to touching the Bible). This is to show respect for the Bible and in the East, Christians place their copies of Scripture in a rehal to elevate its position.[90]

Eritrean Orthodox, places a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings, and its followers adhere to certain practices such as observeing days of ritual purification.[91][2]

In Eastern Christianity, including Oriental Orthodox Christianity, as with some Western Orthodox Christian traditions, shoes are removed in order to acknowledge that one is offering prayer before a holy God.[92][93]

Among

Old Ritualists in the Russian Christian tradition, a prayer rug known as a Podruchnik is used to keep one's face and hands clean during prostrations, as these parts of the body are used to make the sign of the cross.[94]

Christian denominations of the

Holy Communion and eating.[95]

Sex and menstruation

In

Oriental Orthodox Christianity, the "holiness of the Church is traditionally tied scripturally with the Jerusalem Temple".[96] As such, believers fast after midnight and "sexual intercourse is prohibited the night before communion" (cf. Eucharistic discipline).[96]

In the

Ethiopian Orthodox Church, an Oriental Orthodox Christian denomination, men are not permitted to enter a church the day after they have had sexual intercourse with their wives.[97] People who are ritually unclean may approach the church but are not permitted to enter it; they instead stand near the church door and pray during the liturgy.[98] The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church prescribes several kinds of hand washing for example after leaving the latrine, lavatory or bathhouse, or before prayer, or after eating a meal.[99]

Pope Dionysius of Alexandria taught that with regard to menstruating women that "not even they themselves, being faithful and pious, would dare when in this state either to approach the Holy Table or to touch the body and blood of Christ."[96] As such, Oriental Orthodox Christian women, such as those belonging to the Coptic Orthodox Church, are not permitted to receive Holy Communion while they are menstruating.[96]

mainstream Christian denominations do not require the practice and maintain a neutral position on it, circumcision is widely practiced in many Christian countries and communities.[108][109][110][111][112]

Christian dietary laws and fasting

Main articles: Christian dietary laws and Fasting § Christianity
Further information: Christian vegetarianism

In the

Lutheran Churches and the Moravian Church
.

early Church, among both the clergy and laity.[114] Since eating meat was traditionally viewed as a luxury, many Christians may choose to practice vegetarianism as their Lenten sacrifice during the penetential season of Lent in the Christian calendar.[115]

With respect to meat consumption, in

Ethiopian Orthodox Church, slaughtering animals for food is done with one strike in the name of the trinitarian formula (cf. Jhatka).[116][117][118]

Meat consumed by Christians should not retain any blood.[119][120]

The

Friday Fast from meat is observed by Christians of the Catholic, Oriental Orthodox, Church of the East, Methodist, and Anglican traditions, especially during the season of Lent in the Christian calendar.[121][122][123][124]

The

Pentecostal traditions of Christianity prohibit the consumption of alcohol (cf. teetotalism).[125] On the other hand other Christian denominations condone moderate drinking of alcohol, including the Catholic, Lutheran, Oriental Orthodox, and Eastern Orthodox traditions.[126] However, all Christian Churches, in view of the biblical teaching on drunkenness, universally condemn drunkenness as sinful.[127][128]

External apparel

headcoverings when praying and worshipping.[129]

In Christianity, communicants of the Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox Churches are expected to wear a cross necklace at all times; these are ordinarily given to believers at their baptism.[130][131] This practice is derived from Canon 73 and Canon 82 of the Sixth Ecumenical Council (Synod) of Constantinople, which declared:[132]

[A]ll the

Church (Sunday) School children [must] wear a cross knowing how spiritually beneficial it is for them. By wearing a cross the child is protected from evil forces, it invites the grace of the Holy Cross of Christ, it brings His Divine blessing upon the child, it gives the child a sense that he or she belongs to Christ, that he or she has a special identity, that of a Christian, it is a reminder that Christ is always with him/her, it reminds the child that Jesus died on the Cross to save him/her, that Jesus Christ is our Only Savior and the True God. By wearing a cross the child feels the love of God and gives the child hope and strength to overcome any obstacle in his or her life.[132]

Old Ritualists of the Russian Christian tradition, as well in the Anabaptist Churches, women wear headcoverings when praying and worshipping.[94][136]

In denominations of the conservative holiness movement such as the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection and Evangelical Wesleyan Church, when in public, women are enjoined to wear clothing with sleeves extended past the elbows and "Women's hemlines are to be modestly below the knees" (cf. outward holiness).[137]

Gallery

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ablution in Christianity.

References

  1. ^
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    . Water plays a role in other Christian rituals as well. ... In the early days of Christianity, two to three centuries after Christ, the lavabo (Latin for "I wash myself"), a ritual handwashing vessel and bowl, was introduced as part of Church service.
  2. ^
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  12. ^
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  19. ^ Exodus 19:10, Exodus 30:19–21, Leviticus 8:6,Numbers 8:21, etc.
  20. ^ Leviticus 15:13
  21. ^ Leviticus 15:11
  22. ^ Psalms 26:6
  23. ^ Exodus 30:18–20
  24. ^ Kugler, Hartin, pp. 82–83
  25. ^ Kugler, Hartin, p. 82
  26. ^ Davies, Rogerson, p. 101
  27. ^ Marx, p. 104
  28. ^ Balentine (2002), p. 8
  29. ^ Gorman, pp. 10–11
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  31. ^ Jn. 9:7, Jn. 9:11, Jn. 9:15
  32. ^ Acts 9:37
  33. ^ Lk. 5:2
  34. ^ Matt. 6:17
  35. ^ Acts 16:33
  36. ^ Matt. 27:24
  37. ^ Jn. 13:5–14, 1 Tim. 5:10
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  42. ^ Mark 7:1–5
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  45. ^ Acts 21:26
  46. ^ Gibson, Margaret Dunlop (1903). The Didascalia Apostolorum in English. C.J. Clay. pp. 9–10.
  47. ISBN 9780889209121
    . ... Thus bathing also was considered a part of good health practice. For example, Tertullian attended the baths and believed them hygienic. Clement of Alexandria, while condemning excesses, had given guidelines for Christians who wished to attend the baths ...
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    . Christian hygiene existed (and still exists) as one small but ever important part of this modernization project. Hygiene provides an incredibly mundane, deeply routinized, marker of Christian civility ...Identifying the rural poor as "The Great Unwashed," Haymaker published Christian pamphlets on health and hygiene, ... of personal hygiene" (filled with soap, toothpaste, and floss), attempt to shape Christian Outreach and Ethnicity.
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    . It was probably out of the Jewish rite that the practice developed among early Christians, especially in the east, of washing their hands and feet before going into church. Early Christian basilicas had a fountain for ablutions, known as cantharus or phiala, and usually placed in the centre of the atrium. They are still found in some Eastern Orthodox churches, notably at the monastery of Laura at Mount Athos, where the phiala is an imposing structure in front of the entrance covered by a dome resting on eight pillars. In several Orthodox churches today worshippers take off heir shoes and wash their feet before entering the church just as Muslims do before going into a mosque.
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  82. ^ A History of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom. Pont. Institutum Studiorum Orientalium. 1978. p. 164. In more recent times, both the Bernini fountains that grace St. Peter's Square and the holy water stoups of Roman rite churches are relics of the same phenomenon: they trace their origin to the fountains that were placed in the esonarthex of early Christian houses of worship so that the faithful could wash before entering church.
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    . Peterson quotes a passage from the Acts of Hipparchus and Philotheus: "In Hipparchus's house there was a specially decorated room and a cross was painted on the east wall of it. There before the image of the cross, they used to pray seven times a day ... with their faces turned to the east." It is easy to see the importance of this passage when you compare it with what Origen says. The custom of turning towards the rising sun when praying had been replaced by the habit of turning towards the east wall. This we find in Origen. From the other passage we see that a cross had been painted on the wall to show which was the east. Hence the origin of the practice of hanging crucifixes on the walls of the private rooms in Christian houses. We know too that signs were put up in the Jewish synagogues to show the direction of Jerusalem, because the Jews turned that way when they said their prayers. The question of the proper way to face for prayer has always been of great importance in the East. It is worth remembering that Mohammedans pray with their faces turned towards Mecca and that one reason for the condemnation of Al Hallaj, the Mohammedan martyr, was that he refused to conform to this practice.
  84. ^ Kalleeny, Tony. "Why We Face the EAST". Orlando: St Mary and Archangel Michael Church. Retrieved 6 August 2020. Christians in Syria as well, in the second century, would place the cross in the direction of the East towards which people in their homes or churches prayed. The direction to which Christians prayed symbolized their souls facing God, talking with him, and sharing their spirituality with the Lord.
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  104. S2CID 38064474
    . Michael Benatar and David Benatar (2003) identify and insightfully refute two arguments that opponents of neonatal male circumcision use in an attempt to demonstrate the moral illicitness of the practice. The first argument they consider is that circumcision is tantamount to an unjustifiable form of mutilation. The second argument is that, because circumcision is not a strictly therapeutic procedure, parents are not justified in giving consent for it on behalf of their child. As ethicists for a large Catholic health system, we have encountered a third argument opposing the practice, particularly in Catholic hospitals. In short, this argument is that the practice of circumcising male neonates is a violation of the natural law as conceived within the Catholic moral tradition and Church teaching. ... We are unaware of the Catholic Church explicitly addressing the practice of circumcising male infants in any of its official teachings.
  105. ISBN 9780195176322
    . Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.
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  108. ISBN 9780812292510
    . Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians
  109. ISBN 9781449648756
    . Neonatal circumcision is the general practice among Jews, Christians, and many, but not all Muslims.
  110. ISBN 9781118665695
    . Although it is mostly common and required in male newborns with Moslem or Jewish backgrounds, certain Christian-dominant countries such as the United States also practice it commonly.
  111. ISBN 9780190272432
    . male circumcision is still observed among Ethiopian and Coptic Christians, and circumcision rates are also high today in the Philippines and the US.
  112. ISBN 9781438110387
    . It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North America.
  113. ISBN 978-0-8307-4811-2
    .
  114. ISBN 9780791490679
    .
  115. ^ Parker-Pope, Tara (11 March 2011). "Going Vegan for Lent". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
  116. ISBN 978-0-520-92301-0
    . The Christians do "Basema ab wawald wamanfas qeeus ahadu amlak" [in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit one God] and then slaughter. The Jews say "Baruch yitharek amlak yisrael" [Blessed is the King (God) of Israel].
  117. ISBN 978-0-300-13359-2
    . By contrast, the most common mode of slaughtering four-legged animals among Christians in the nineteenth century was through the deliverance of a stunning blow to the head, usually with a mallet or poleax.
  118. ISBN 978-1-135-18832-0
    . The Armenian and other Orthodox rituals of slaughter display obvious links with shechitah, Jewish kosher slaughter.
  119. ISBN 9781870603010
    . Both the Jewish and the Christian methods of slaughter fulfill the Islamic condition of bleeding the animal.
  120. ISBN 9781585580538
    . The eating of animals is not forbidden. The Scriptures do not forbid the eating and partaking of animals. This does not mean that all animals are to be eaten (Mark 7:19; Acts 11:9; 1 Tim. 4:4). It is clear in the Scriptures that we are not supposed to eat animals that are alive or with blood (Gen. 9:2–4; Deut. 12:16, 23–24).
  121. ISBN 9781418576134
    . John Wesley, in his Journal, wrote on Friday, August 17, 1739, that "many of our society met, as we had appointed, at one in the afternoon and agreed that all members of our society should obey the Church to which we belong by observing 'all Fridays in the year' as 'days of fasting and abstinence.'
  122. ISBN 9780802841032
    .
  123. ^ Smith, Larry D. (September 2008). "Progressive Sanctification" (PDF). God's Revivalist and Bible Advocate. 120 (6). God's Bible School and College. Principles which underlie our Wesleyan/holiness heritage include such commitments as unquestioned scriptural authority; classical orthodox theology; identity with the one holy and apostolic church; warmhearted evangelical experience; love perfected in sanctifying grace; careful, disciplined living; structured spiritual formation, fidelity to the means of grace; and responsible witness both in public and in private—all of which converge in holiness of heart and life, which for us Methodists will always be the "central idea of Christianity." These are bedrock essentials, and without them we shall have no heritage at all. Though we may neglect them, these principles never change. But our prudentials often do. Granted, some of these are so basic to our DNA that to give them up would be to alter the character of our movement. John Wesley, for example, believed that the prudentials of early Methodism were so necessary to guard its principles that to lose the first would be also to lose the second. His immediate followers should have listened to his caution, as should we. For throughout our history, foolish men have often imperiled our treasure by their brutal assault against the walls which our founders raised to contain them. Having said this, we must add that we have had many other prudentials less significant to our common life which have come and gone throughout our history. For instance, weekly class meetings, quarterly love feasts, and Friday fast days were once practiced universally among us, as was the appointment of circuit-riding ministers assisted by "exhorters" and "local preachers."
  124. ISBN 978-0-19-979606-9
    . All the Fridays in the Year, except Christmas Day and the Epiphany, or any Friday which may intervene between these Feasts.
  125. ISBN 978-0-495-56609-0
    . Protestants who called themselves "fundamentalists" (they believed in the literal truth of the Bible—Baptists, Methodists, Pentecostals) were dry.
  126. ISBN 978-0-684-82314-0
    . Although the Jewish, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Episcopal, and Lutheran traditions generally allow moderate drinking for those who can do so, it is simply incorrect to accuse them of condoning drunkenness.
  127. ISBN 978-0-313-32362-1
    . Drunkenness was biblically condemned, and all denominations disciplined drunken members.
  128. ISBN 978-0-664-22589-6
    . For most of Christian history, as in the Bible, moderate drinking of alcohol was taken for granted while drunkenness was condemned.
  129. ISBN 9781490834313
    .
  130. ^ Samaan, Moses (25 August 2010). "Who wears the Cross and when?". Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles, Southern California, and Hawaii. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
  131. ^ Konstantopoulos, George D. (18 September 2017). "All Orthodox Christians are Given a Cross Following Their Baptism to Wear for Life". St. Andrew Greek Orthodox Church. Archived from the original on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
  132. ^ a b Konstantopoulos, George D. (18 September 2017). "All Orthodox Christians are Given a Cross Following Their Baptism to Wear for Life". St. Andrew Greek Orthodox Church. Archived from the original on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
  133. ISBN 978-0-924722-06-6
    . Hippolytus, a leader in the church in Rome around the year 200, compiled a record of the various customs and practices in that church from the generations that preceded him. His Apostolic Tradition contains this statement: "And let all the women have their heads covered with an opaque cloth, not with a veil of thin linen, for this is not a true covering." This written evidence of the course of performance of the early Christians is corroborated by the archaeological record. The pictures we have from the second and third centuries from the catacombs and other places depict Christian women praying with a cloth veil on their heads. So the historical record is crystal clear. It reveals that the early generation of believers understood the head covering to be a cloth veil—not long hair.
  134. ^ "Veil". Early Christian Dictionary. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
  135. ^ Earle, Alice Morse (1903). Two Centuries of Costume in America, Vol. 2 (1620–1820). The Macmillan Company. p. 582. One singular thing may be noted in this history, – that with all the vagaries of fashion, woman has never violated the Biblical law that bade her cover her head. She has never gone to church services bareheaded.
  136. ISBN 978-1-59942-877-2
    .
  137. ^ The Discipline of the Evangelical Wesleyan Church. Evangelical Wesleyan Church. 2015. pp. 41, 57–58.
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