Christendom

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Christendom[2][3] refers to Christian states, Christian-majority countries or countries in which Christianity is dominant[4] or prevails.[2]

Following the spread of Christianity from the

Latin Christendom rose to the central role of the Western world.[7] The history of the Christian world spans about 2,000 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advancements in the arts, architecture, literature, science, philosophy, politics and technology.[8][9][10]

Terminology

The

Jesus Christ.[11] It had the sense now taken by Christianity (as is still the case with the cognate Dutch christendom,[12] where it denotes mostly the religion itself, just like the German Christentum).[13]

The current sense of the word of "lands where Christianity is the dominant religion"

Late Middle English (by c. 1400).[14]

Canadian theology professor Douglas John Hall stated (1997) that "Christendom" [...] means literally the dominion or sovereignty of the Christian religion."[4] Thomas John Curry, Roman Catholic auxiliary bishop of Los Angeles, defined (2001) Christendom as "the system dating from the fourth century by which governments upheld and promoted Christianity."[15] Curry states that the end of Christendom came about because modern governments refused to "uphold the teachings, customs, ethos, and practice of Christianity."[15] British church historian Diarmaid MacCulloch described (2010) Christendom as "the union between Christianity and secular power."[16]

Christendom was originally a medieval concept which has steadily evolved since the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the gradual rise of the Papacy more in religio-temporal implications practically during and after the reign of Charlemagne; and the concept let itself be lulled in the minds of the staunch believers to the archetype of a holy religious space inhabited by Christians, blessed by God, the Heavenly Father, ruled by Christ through the Church and protected by the Spirit-body of Christ; no wonder, this concept, as included the whole of Europe and then the expanding Christian territories on earth, strengthened the roots of Romance of the greatness of Christianity in the world.[17]

There is a common and nonliteral sense of the word that is much like the terms

European identity.[18]

History

See also: History of Christianity and History of Western civilization

Rise of Christendom

See also:
State church of the Roman Empire
T-and-O map, which abstracts the then known world to a cross inscribed within an orb, remakes geography in the service of Christian iconography. More detailed versions place Jerusalem
at the center of the world.

Early Christianity spread in the Greek/Roman world and beyond as a 1st-century

bishops
(overseers).

The post-apostolic period concerns the time roughly after the death of the apostles when bishops emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations. The earliest recorded use of the terms Christianity (Greek Χριστιανισμός) and

imperial persecution of Christians after the ascension of Constantine the Great and the Edict of Milan in AD 313 and the First Council of Nicaea in 325.[21]

According to Malcolm Muggeridge (1980), Christ founded Christianity, but Constantine founded Christendom.[22] Canadian theology professor Douglas John Hall dates the 'inauguration of Christendom' to the 4th century, with Constantine playing the primary role (so much so that he equates Christendom with "Constantinianism") and Theodosius I (Edict of Thessalonica, 380) and Justinian I[a] secondary roles.[24]

Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages

Further information:
Germanic Christianity
the Emperor Constantine and the bishops of the First Council of Nicaea (AD 325) holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381
Spread of Christianity by AD 600 (shown in dark blue is the spread of Early Christianity up to AD 325)

"Christendom" has referred to the

European history.[25]

The Church gradually became a defining institution of the Roman Empire.

Christian world in size, wealth, and culture.[29] There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy, as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.[30]

As the

communion with Rome
.

On Christmas Day 800 AD,

Byzantine state.[32][unreliable source?] The Carolingian Empire created a definition of Christendom in juxtaposition with the Byzantine Empire, that of a distributed versus centralized culture respectively.[33]

The classical heritage flourished throughout the Middle Ages in both the Byzantine Greek East and the Latin West. In the Greek philosopher

ideal community where discernible in the organization, dogma and effectiveness of "the" Medieval Church in Europe:[34]

... For a thousand years Europe was ruled by an order of guardians considerably like that which was visioned by our philosopher. During the Middle Ages it was customary to classify the population of Christendom into laboratores (workers), bellatores (soldiers), and oratores (clergy). The last group, though small in number, monopolized the instruments and opportunities of culture, and ruled with almost unlimited sway half of the most powerful continent on the globe. The clergy, like Plato's guardians, were placed in authority... by their talent as shown in ecclesiastical studies and administration, by their disposition to a life of meditation and simplicity, and ... by the influence of their relatives with the powers of state and church. In the latter half of the period in which they ruled [800 AD onwards], the clergy were as free from family cares as even Plato could desire [for such guardians]... [Clerical] Celibacy was part of the psychological structure of the power of the clergy; for on the one hand they were unimpeded by the narrowing egoism of the family, and on the other their apparent superiority to the call of the flesh added to the awe in which lay sinners held them....[34]

Later Middle Ages and Renaissance

Main articles: High Middle Ages and Late Middle Ages
Further information: East–West Schism, Western Schism, Crusades, and Reconquista
Further information:
Byzantine–Ottoman Wars, and Fall of Constantinople

After the

corpus iuris canonica (body of canon law).[36][37][38][39]

In the East, Christendom became more defined as the

path to its destruction.[40][41][42] With the breakup of the Byzantine Empire into individual nations with nationalist Orthodox Churches, the term Christendom described Western Europe, Catholicism, Orthodox Byzantines, and other Eastern rites of the Church.[43][44]

The

pogroms, to root out divergent elements and create a religiously uniform community.[46] Ultimately, the Inquisition was done away with by order of Pope Innocent III.[47]

Christendom ultimately was led into specific crisis in the

Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. Known as the Western Schism, western Christendom was a split between three men, who were driven by politics rather than any real theological disagreement for simultaneously claiming to be the true pope. The Avignon Papacy developed a reputation for corruption that estranged major parts of Western Christendom. The Avignon schism was ended by the Council of Constance.[48]

Before the modern period, Christendom was in a general crisis at the time of the

Machiavelli cast a jaundiced eye on "la verità effetuale delle cose"—the actual truth of things—in The Prince, composed, humanist style, chiefly of parallel ancient and modern examples of Virtù. Some Protestant movements grew up along lines of mysticism or renaissance humanism (cf. Erasmus). The Catholic Church fell partly into general neglect under the Renaissance Popes, whose inability to govern the Church by showing personal example of high moral standards set the climate for what would ultimately become the Protestant Reformation.[49] During the Renaissance, the papacy was mainly run by the wealthy families and also had strong secular interests. To safeguard Rome and the connected Papal States the popes became necessarily involved in temporal matters, even leading armies, as the great patron of arts Pope Julius II did. During these intermediate times, popes strove to make Rome the capital of Christendom while projecting it through art, architecture, and literature as the center of a Golden Age of unity, order, and peace.[50]

Professor Frederick J. McGinness described Rome as essential in understanding the legacy the Church and its representatives encapsulated best by The Eternal City:

No other city in Europe matches Rome in its traditions, history, legacies, and influence in the Western world. Rome in the Renaissance under the papacy not only acted as guardian and transmitter of these elements stemming from the Roman Empire but also assumed the role as artificer and interpreter of its myths and meanings for the peoples of Europe from the Middle Ages to modern times... Under the patronage of the popes, whose wealth and income were exceeded only by their ambitions, the city became a cultural center for master architects, sculptors, musicians, painters, and artisans of every kind...In its myth and message, Rome had become the sacred city of the popes, the prime symbol of a triumphant Catholicism, the center of orthodox Christianity, a new Jerusalem.[51]

It is clearly noticeable that the popes of the Italian Renaissance have been subjected by many writers with an overly harsh tone. Pope Julius II, for example, was not only an effective secular leader in military affairs, a deviously effective politician but foremost one of the greatest patron of the Renaissance period and person who also encouraged open criticism from noted humanists.[52]

The blossoming of renaissance humanism was made very much possible due to the universality of the institutions of Catholic Church and represented by personalities such as

Bartolomé de Las Casas, Leonardo da Vinci and Teresa of Ávila. George Santayana in his work The Life of Reason postulated the tenets of the all encompassing order the Church had brought and as the repository of the legacy of classical antiquity:[53]

The enterprise of individuals or of small aristocratic bodies has meantime sown the world which we call civilised with some seeds and nuclei of order. There are scattered about a variety of churches, industries, academies, and governments. But the universal order once dreamt of and nominally almost established, the empire of universal peace, all-permeating rational art, and philosophical worship, is mentioned no more. An unformulated conception, the prerational ethics of private privilege and national unity, fills the background of men's minds. It represents feudal traditions rather than the tendency really involved in contemporary industry, science, or philanthropy. Those dark ages, from which our political practice is derived, had a political theory which we should do well to study; for their theory about a universal empire and a Catholic church was in turn the echo of a former age of reason, when a few men conscious of ruling the world had for a moment sought to survey it as a whole and to rule it justly.[53]

Reformation and Early Modern era

Further information: Reformation, Counter-Reformation, History of Protestantism, and European wars of religion
Further information:
History of the Serbian–Turkish wars
Further information:
Jesuit China missions and Spanish missions in the Americas

Developments in

Henry VIII establishing the English church.[55]

In

Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which legally ended the concept of a single Christian hegemony in the territories of the Holy Roman Empire, despite the Catholic Church's doctrine that it alone is the one true Church founded by Christ.[57]
Subsequently, each government determined the religion of their own state. Christians living in states where their denomination was not the established one were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.
crypto-protestants.[58]

The

Treaty of Utrecht of 1713.[60] In the 18th century, the focus shifts away from religious conflicts, either between Christian factions or against the external threat of Islamic factions.[citation needed
]

End of Christendom

Christian majority countries in 2010; Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple while countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink.[61][needs update]

The

nation-state, accompanied by increasing atheism and secularism, culminating with the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the 19th century.[62]

Writing in 1997, Canadian

First World War (1914–18), which led to the fall of the three main Christian empires (Russian, German and Austrian) of Europe, as well as the Ottoman Empire, rupturing the Eastern Christian communities that had existed on its territory. The Christian empires were replaced by secular, even anti-clerical republics seeking to definitively keep the churches out of politics. The only surviving monarchy with an established church, Britain, was severely damaged by the war, lost most of Ireland due to Catholic–Protestant infighting, and was starting to lose grip on its colonies.[16]

Changes in worldwide Christianity over the last century have been significant, since 1900, Christianity has spread rapidly in the

Global South and Third World countries.[63] The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and the Southern Hemisphere in general,[64] by 2010 about 157 countries and territories in the world had Christian majorities.[65]

Classical culture

Further information:
Role of the Catholic Church in Western civilization, and Christian culture
St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna

European identity.[18] Historian Paul Legutko of Stanford University said the Catholic Church is "at the center of the development of the values, ideas, science, laws, and institutions which constitute what we call Western civilization."[10]

Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the

Medieval Christianity created the first modern universities.[68][69] The Catholic Church established a hospital system in Medieval Europe that vastly improved upon the Roman valetudinaria.[70] These hospitals were established to cater to "particular social groups marginalized by poverty, sickness, and age," according to historian of hospitals, Guenter Risse.[71] Christianity also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life: marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts.[72]

Christianity had a significant impact on education and science and medicine as the church created the bases of the Western system of education,

societies, such as human sacrifice, slavery,[90] infanticide and polygamy.[91]

Art and literature

Writings and poetry

Main articles: Christian literature and Christian poetry

themes, or references. The influence of Christianity on poetry has been great in any area that Christianity has taken hold. Christian poems often directly reference the Bible, while others provide allegory.[92]

Supplemental arts

Main article: Christian art

Roman Catholicism, and Eastern Orthodoxy.[93]

Illumination

Main article: Illuminated manuscript
Picture of Christ in Majesty contained in an illuminated manuscript

An

Late Antiquity.[94]

Most illuminated manuscripts were created as codices, which had superseded scrolls; some isolated single sheets survive. A very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on papyrus. Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written on parchment (most commonly of calf, sheep, or goat skin), but most manuscripts important enough to illuminate were written on the best quality of parchment, called vellum, traditionally made of unsplit calfskin, though high quality parchment from other skins was also called parchment.[95]

Iconography

Main articles:
Saint symbology, and Iconography
Preslav, Bulgaria
).

Christian art began, about two centuries after Christ, by borrowing motifs from

canonical Gospel narratives were plugged with matter from the apocryphal gospels. Eventually the Church would succeed in weeding most of these out, but some remain, like the ox and ass in the Nativity of Christ
.

An

Mary and saints and other subjects were developed; the number of named types of icons of Mary, with or without the infant Christ, was especially large in the East, whereas Christ Pantocrator
was much the commonest image of Christ.

identifying individual figures of saints by a standard appearance and symbolic objects held by them; in the East they were more likely to identified by text labels.[93]

Each saint has a story and a reason why he or she led an exemplary life.

Symbols have been used to tell these stories throughout the history of the Church. A number of Christian saints are traditionally represented by a symbol or iconic motif associated with their life, termed an attribute or emblem, in order to identify them. The study of these forms part of iconography in Art history.[98]

Architecture

Main article: Church architecture
The structure of a typical Gothic cathedral

Christian architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Christianity to the present day, influencing the design and construction of buildings and structures in Christian culture.[99]

Buildings were at first adapted from those originally intended for other purposes but, with the rise of distinctively ecclesiastical architecture, church buildings came to influence secular ones which have often imitated religious architecture. In the 20th century, the use of new materials, such as concrete, as well as simpler styles has had its effect upon the design of churches and arguably the flow of influence has been reversed.

Roman architecture.[101]

Philosophy

Main articles: Christian philosophy and Scholasticism

dialectical reasoning.[103]

Further information:
History of science in the Middle Ages

Christian civilization

Main article: Christianity and science
Science, and particularly geometry and astronomy, was linked directly to the divine for most medieval scholars. Since these Christians believed God imbued the universe with regular geometric and harmonic principles, to seek these principles was therefore to seek and worship God.

Medieval conditions

Main articles:
List of Christian thinkers in science

The

Buridan, the West carried on at least the spirit of scientific inquiry which would later lead to Europe's taking the lead in science during the Scientific Revolution using translations of medieval works
.

De Re Metallica for raising ore from shafts, crushing ore, and even powering bellows
.

Significant in this respect were advances within the fields of

egalitarian society
, but one more able to dominate other cultures, drawing from a vast reserve of knowledge and experience.

Renaissance innovations

Main articles:
History of science in the Renaissance and Renaissance technology

During the

Bastion fortresses. Draw-books of the Renaissance artist-engineers such as Taccola and Leonardo da Vinci
give a deep insight into the mechanical technology then known and applied.

early modern science: a Scientific Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries, focused on the restoration of the natural knowledge of the ancients; and a Scientific Revolution of the 17th century, when scientists shifted from recovery to innovation. Some scholars and historians attributes Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution.[105][106][107][108]

Professor Noah J Efron says that "Generations of historians and sociologists have discovered many ways in which Christians, Christian beliefs, and Christian institutions played crucial roles in fashioning the tenets, methods, and institutions of what in time became modern science. They found that some forms of Christianity provided the motivation to study nature systematically..."[109] Virtually all modern scholars and historians agree that Christianity moved many early-modern intellectuals to study nature systematically.[110]

Demographics

Main article: Christianity by country
See also: List of Christian denominations by number of members and Christian population growth

Geographic spread

Further information: State religion
Relative geographic prevalence of Christianity versus Islam versus lack of either religion (2006)

In 2009, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Christianity was the majority religion in Europe (including Russia) with 80%, Latin America with 92%, North America with 81%, and Oceania with 79%.[111] There are also large Christian communities in other parts of the world, such as China, India and Central Asia, where Christianity is the second-largest religion after Islam. The United States is home to the world's largest Christian population, followed by Brazil and Mexico.[112]

Many Christians not only live under, but also have an official status in, a

Swiss Reformed Church and Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland
).

Number of adherents

The estimated number of Christians in the world ranges from 2.2 billion[125][126][127][128] to 2.4 billion people.[b] The faith represents approximately one-third of the world's population and is the largest religion in the world,[127] with the three largest groups of Christians being the Catholic Church, Protestantism, and the Eastern Orthodox Church.[129] The largest Christian denomination is the Catholic Church, with an estimated 1.2 billion adherents.[130]

Demographics of major traditions within Christianity (Pew Research Center, 2010 data)[131][needs update]
Tradition Followers % of the Christian population % of the world population Follower dynamics Dynamics in- and outside Christianity
Catholic Church 1,094,610,000 50.1 15.9 Increase Growing Decrease Declining
Protestantism 800,640,000 36.7 11.6 Increase Growing Increase Growing
Orthodoxy
 260,380,000 11.9 3.8 Decrease Declining Decrease Declining
Other Christianity 28,430,000 1.3 0.4 Increase Growing Increase Growing
Christianity 2,184,060,000 100 31.7 Increase Growing Steady Stable

Notable Christian organizations

A

Holy Orders
is used by many Christian churches to refer to ordination or to a group of individuals who are set apart for a special role or ministry. Historically, the word "order" designated an established civil body or corporation with a hierarchy, and ordination meant legal incorporation into an ordo. The word "holy" refers to the Church. In context, therefore, a holy order is set apart for ministry in the Church. Religious orders are composed of initiates (laity) and, in some traditions, ordained clergies.

Various organizations include:

See also: Category: Christian organizations

Christianity law and ethics

Church and state framing

Main articles: Canon law and Christian ethics

Within the framework of Christianity, there are at least three possible definitions for Church law. One is the Torah/Mosaic Law (from what Christians consider to be the

legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these three bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was initially a rule adopted by a council (From Greek kanon / κανών, Hebrew
kaneh / קנה, for rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law.

Early Christians were subjects of the Roman Empire. From the time Nero blamed Christians for setting Rome ablaze (64 AD) until Galerius
(311 AD), persecutions against Christians erupted periodically. Consequently, Early Christian ethics included discussions of how believers should relate to Roman authority and to the empire.

Under the

First seven Ecumenical Councils. By the time of Theodosius I (379–395), Christianity had become the state religion
of the empire. With Christianity in power, ethical concerns broaden and included discussions of the proper role of the state.

synoptic gospels which reads in full, "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". This phrase has become a widely quoted summary of the relationship between Christianity and secular authority. The gospels say that when Jesus gave his response, his interrogators "marvelled, and left him, and went their way." Time has not resolved an ambiguity in this phrase, and people continue to interpret this passage to support various positions that are poles apart. The traditional division, carefully determined, in Christian thought is the state and church have separate spheres of influence
.

Thomas Aquinas thoroughly discussed that human law is positive law which means that it is natural law applied by governments to societies. All human laws were to be judged by their conformity to the natural law. An unjust law was in a sense no law at all. At this point, the natural law was not only used to pass judgment on the moral worth of various laws, but also to determine what the law said in the first place. This could result in some tension.[133] Late ecclesiastical writers followed in his footsteps.

See also:
Doctrine of the two kingdoms and Unam sanctam

Democratic ideology

Main article: Christian democracy

secularisation. In practice, Christian democracy is often considered conservative on cultural, social and moral issues and progressive on fiscal and economic issues. In places, where their opponents have traditionally been secularist socialists and social democrats, Christian democratic parties are moderately conservative
, whereas in other cultural and political environments they can lean to the left.

Women's roles

Main article: Women in Christianity

Attitudes and beliefs about the roles and responsibilities of women in Christianity vary considerably today as they have throughout the last two millennia—evolving along with or counter to the societies in which Christians have lived. The Bible and Christianity historically have been interpreted as excluding women from church leadership and placing them in submissive roles in marriage. Male leadership has been assumed in the church and within marriage, society and government.[134]

Some contemporary writers describe the role of women in the life of the church as having been downplayed, overlooked, or denied throughout much of Christian history.

marriage, as well as for the ordination of women to the clergy. Contemporary conservatives meanwhile have reasserted what has been termed a "complementarian" position, promoting the traditional belief that the Bible ordains different roles and responsibilities for women and men in the Church and family.[135]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ In 529, Justinian closed the Neoplatonic Academy of Athens, a last bulwark of pagan philosophy, made rigorous efforts to exterminate Arianism and Montanism, personally campaigned against Monophysitism, and made Chalcedonian Christianity the Byzantine state religion.[23]
  2. ^ Current sources are in general agreement that Christians make up about 33% of the world's population—slightly over 2.4 billion adherents in mid-2015.

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Bibliography

21st century Sources
20th century sources
19th century sources

Further reading

  • Bainton, Roland H. (1966). Christendom: a Short History of Christianity and Its Impact on Western Civilization, in series, Harper Colophon Books. New York: Harper & Row. 2 vol., ill.
  • Molland, Einar (1959) Christendom: the Christian churches, their doctrines, constitutional forms and ways of worship. London: A. & R. Mowbray & Co. (first published in Norwegian in 1953 as Konfesjonskunnskap).
  • Whalen, Brett Edward (2009). Dominion of God: Christendom and Apocalypse in the Middle Ages. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

External links

Look up Christendom in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Websites
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christendom&oldid=1214470379"