Iron cycle

The iron cycle (Fe) is the

primary productivity,^[11] and a limiting nutrient in the Southern ocean, eastern equatorial Pacific, and the subarctic Pacific referred to as High-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll (HNLC) regions of the ocean.^[12]

Iron exists in a range of

microorganisms, especially iron-oxidizing bacteria. The abiotic processes include the rusting of iron-bearing metals, where Fe²⁺ is abiotically oxidized to Fe³⁺ in the presence of oxygen, and the reduction of Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺ by iron-sulfide minerals. The biological cycling of Fe²⁺ is done by iron oxidizing and reducing microbes.^[14][15]

Iron is an essential micronutrient for almost every life form. It is a key component of hemoglobin, important to nitrogen fixation as part of the Nitrogenase enzyme family, and as part of the iron-sulfur core of ferredoxin it facilitates electron transport in chloroplasts, eukaryotic mitochondria, and bacteria. Due to the high reactivity of Fe²⁺ with oxygen and low solubility of Fe³⁺, iron is a limiting nutrient in most regions of the world.

Ancient earth

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Research groups DAAC GEOTRACES IMBER NOBM SOLAS
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On the early Earth, when atmospheric oxygen levels were 0.001% of those present today, dissolved Fe²⁺ was thought to have been a lot more abundant in the oceans, and thus more bioavailable to microbial life.^[16] Iron sulfide may have provided the energy and surfaces for the first organisms.^[17] At this time, before the onset of oxygenic photosynthesis, primary production may have been dominated by photo-ferrotrophs, which would obtain energy from sunlight, and use the electrons from Fe²⁺ to fix carbon.^[18]

During the Great Oxidation Event, 2.3-2.5 billion years ago, dissolved iron was oxidized by oxygen produced by cyanobacteria to form iron oxides. The iron oxides were denser than water and fell to the ocean floor forming banded iron formations (BIF).^[19] Over time, rising oxygen levels removed increasing amounts of iron from the ocean. BIFs have been a key source of iron ore in modern times.^[20][21]

Terrestrial ecosystems

The iron cycle is an important component of the terrestrial ecosystems. The ferrous form of iron, Fe²⁺, is dominant in the Earth's mantle, core, or deep crust. The ferric form, Fe³⁺, is more stable in the presence of oxygen gas.

Aeolian dust is a critical part of the iron cycle by transporting iron particulates from the Earth's land via the atmosphere to the ocean.^[23]

Volcanic eruptions are also a key contributor to the terrestrial iron cycle, releasing iron-rich dust into the atmosphere in either a large burst or in smaller spurts over time.^[24] The atmospheric transport of iron-rich dust can impact the ocean concentrations.^[2]

Oceanic ecosystem

The ocean is a critical component of the Earth's

hydrothermal vents.^[26] Iron supply is an important factor affecting growth of phytoplankton, the base of marine food web.^[27] Offshore regions rely on atmospheric dust deposition and upwelling.^[21] Other major sources of iron to the ocean include glacial particulates, hydrothermal vents, and volcanic ash.^[28] In offshore regions, bacteria also compete with phytoplankton for uptake of iron.^[21] In HNLC regions, iron limits the productivity of phytoplankton.^[29]

marine animals in the cycling of iron in the Southern Ocean ^[30]

Iron primarily is present in particulate phases as ferric iron, and the dissolved iron fraction is removed out of the water column by coagulation. For this reason, the dissolved iron pool turns over rapidly, in around 100 years.[21]

Interactions with other elemental cycles

The iron cycle interacts significantly with the sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles. Soluble Fe(II) can act as the electron donor, reducing oxidized organic and inorganic electron receptors, including O₂ and NO₃, and become oxidized to Fe(III). The oxidized form of iron can then be the electron acceptor for reduced sulfur, H₂, and organic carbon compounds. This returns the iron to the reduced Fe(II) state, completing the cycle.^[32]

The transition of iron between Fe(II) and Fe(III) in aquatic systems interacts with the freshwater

The iron and sulfur cycle can interact at several points. Purple sulfur bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use Fe(II) as an electron donor during anoxic photosynthesis.^[34] Sulfate reducing bacteria in anoxic environments can reduce sulfate to sulfide, which then binds to Fe(II) to create iron sulfide, a solid mineral that precipitates out of water and removes the iron and sulfur. The iron, phosphate, and sulfur cycles can all interact with each other. Sulfide can reduce Fe(III) from iron that is already bound to phosphate when there are no more metal ions available, which releases the phosphate and creates iron sulfide.^[35]

Iron plays an important role in the nitrogen cycle, aside from its role as part of the enzymes involved in nitrogen fixation. In anoxic conditions, Fe(II) can donate an electron that is accepted by NO₃⁻ which is oxidized to several different forms of nitrogen compounds, NO₂⁻, N₂O, N₂, and NH₄⁺, while Fe(II) is reduced to Fe(III).^[33]

Anthropogenic influences

Human impact on the iron cycle in the ocean is due to dust concentrations increasing at the beginning of the industrial era. Today, there is approximately double the amount of soluble iron in oceans than pre-industrial times from anthropogenic pollutants and soluble iron combustion sources.^[29] Changes in human land-use activities and climate have augmented dust fluxes which increases the amount of aeolian dust to open regions of the ocean.^[28] Other anthropogenic sources of iron are due to combustion. Highest combustion rates of iron occurs in East Asia, which contributes to 20-100% of ocean depositions around the globe.^[29]

Humans have altered the cycle for Nitrogen from fossil fuel combustion and large-scale agriculture.

• Iron fertilization
• Iron-oxidizing bacteria

References